Concluded.

We have a few words derived from the Latin verb tremo, to tremble; as "tremor," which is simply a Latin substantive adopted into English: with the subderivatives, " tremulous," " tremulous-ness," and "tremendous,"or causing awe and trem­bling ; also the verb to " tremble," signifying to shake as with fear or cold.

Tribuo, to give, or contribute, supplies the root of" tribute" and " tributary." The meaning of the former is plain; the latter is sometimes applied in the sense of " contributing," as rivulets bringing water to a larger river are " tributary" streams. A " contribution" is that which is given to supply a part of a sum; and the " contributors" are those who give together the full amount, by " contributary" donations. To " distribute" is to divide; and a " distribution" means a scattering

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asunder that which had been contributed, or given together. To " attribute" is to give to; and the " attributes" mean those things which are attributed or appropriated to another, as perfec­tion to the Supreme Being.* " Retribution" is a giving back again ; and is applied both to reward and punishment.

From trudo, to thrust, and trusus, thrust or pushed, we have "abstruse," describing that which is thrust away from one's view, so as to require keenness of mind to discover it. To " intrude" is to thrust oneself in, uninvited; and he that does so is " intrusive;" and the action itself is an " intrusion." To " obtrude" is to thrust forward against or in the way of, which is an " obtrusion;" and the term " unobtrusive" is applied to denote meek, humble, and retiring manners. A " protru­sion" is a thrusting forth, or forward, and is gene­rally applied to things rather than to persons.

Tueor, is to see or watch over; and from it, and its participle tutus, guarded, we have "tutor," and "tuition," implying watchfulness; and " tutelage," the state of being under guar­dianship. An " untutored " savage is one that has never been under teaching or discipline. " Intuition" implies seeing into; and is used to describe mental vision; and " intuitive" means

* " All the perfections of God are called his attributes; for He can­not be without them."—Watts's Logic.

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seen by the, mind immediately, and without the intervention of argument or testimony.*

From tumeo, to swell, we have " tumid " and " tumor," implying a swelling. A " tumulus" is a mound of earth raised or swelling up. A " tumult" means a swelling or rising up of the people, when they are said to be " tumultuous." " Contumely" is contemptuousness, reproach.† " Contumacious" means stubborn, swelling up against authority. " Tumefaction," compounded of the verbs tumeo and facio, to cause to swell, denotes a swelling.

Unguo, to anoint, (unctus, anointed) gives us " unction," and " unctuous," applied literally to signify anointing; and metaphorically to describe an oily or melting style, referring usually to that which melts to devotion. The term is also applied to any thing lenitive, like a soothing " ointment" to a wound.‡

Utor, to use, (usus, used) gives us " use," both as a substantive and a verb; as also " usage," "usual," and "unusual;" likewise "useful," a

• " The truth of these propositions we know by a bare simple intuition of the ideas; and such propositions are called self-evident."

Locke.

" Immediate perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas .... is called intuitive knowledge."—Ibid.

† " Th' oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, The pangs of despis'd love ; the law's delay."—Hamlet.

‡ " Lay not that flattering unction to your soul,

That not your trespass, bat my madness speaks."

Hamlet. Act iii. sc. 4.

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word formed with the English affix ful, as is " useless" with the Saxon affix less. " Usury," always applied in a bad sense, originally meant payment for the use of money; which is now allowed to produce its own marketable value, like any other commodity for sale or hire. To " usurp'' is to seize the use or possession of that which is the property of another; and " usurpation" is the act of an " usurper," who gets into the possession of that to which another has a right. " Utility" means usefulness, and " utensil" is the name given to any useful article. " Utilitarian" is a modern word, now much in vogue, at a time when the "useful" is justly preferred to the merely ornamental. To " abuse" any thing is to turn it from its proper use ;* and the term is also applied to using " abusive" language.† To " dis­use" is to put out of use ; hence " desuetude," describing what is gone out of use; and to " mis­use" is to apply to a wrong use, formed with the English or Saxon prefix mis, for not or wrong. To " peruse" is to use thoroughly, and the " peru­sal "of a book denotes reading it through, that being the proper use of it.

Vaco, to be empty, or to be at leisure, gives us what pupils and teachers have no objection to—"vacation;" also "vacant," "vacate;" and

* " They that use this world, as not abusing it."—1 Cor. vii. 31. † " But he mocked them, and laughed at them, and abused them

shamefully, and spake proudly."—1 Macc. vii. 34.

LECTURE VII. 197

"vacancy," meaning empty space.* A "vacuum" means a space unoccupied by matter; and a " vacuist" is a philosopher that holds a vacuum, opposed to a plenist, who believes all space to be filled with subtle matter, although a real " vacuum" certainly appears to be caused by the air-pump. " Vacuity" is the same as vacancy; and from the same root we have " evacuate," to empty out of.

Vado, to go, with its participle vasus, gone, gives us " Vade-mecum," which means Go with me; a title given to any small pocket-book. To " evade" is to go out of; and " evasion" signifies avoiding any thing by " evasive," that is, cunning, means. To "invade" is to go into; and "inva­sion" is applied to the incursions of an army going into a country with hostile intent; the leader of which is called an "invader." To " pervade," is to go through, or thoroughly, so as to be found mixed up inseparably with any thing; the word is also applied to passing through the whole extension.†

Valeo, to be well or strong, gives us " valedic­tion" and " valedictory," meaning bidding to fare

• " How is 't,

That thus you bend your eyes on vacancy, And with the incorporal air do hold discourse" ?

Hamlet. Act iii. sc. 4.

† " What but God,

Pervades, adjusts, and agitates the whole" ?

Thomson's Seasons.

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well, compounded of valeo and dico. The pathetic English word farewell is the literal translation of "valediction," meaning go well on your way* A " valetudinarian" is one who takes great care of his health, to keep himself well. "Valiant" means strong, including mental and corporal vigour. A " valid" argument is that which carries weight or strength with it, upon which its " validity" depends. " Valour" also implies strength of mind and body, and the man possessing both is " valorous," as are also his performances."† " Value" is the name given to that which is of worth: to what is " valuable" or precious, that is, worth a price. "Invaluable," though formed with the negative prefix in, so far from denying the value of any thing, intensifies the term, implying that the value of it cannot be estimated, in other words, is beyond price; of similar meaning with inestimable, and formed in like manner. The opposite is formed by the English or Saxon affix less, making " valueless." A "valuator" is one who makes a "valuation" of any thing, that is, calculates its worth. To "avail" oneself of any thing is to take the strength or good of it to oneself; and that which may be so obtained is " available." " Convales-

* See English Roots, pp. 28, 49. Third Edition. † " List to the valorous deeds that were done,

By Harold the Dauntless, Count Witikind's son!"—Scott.

LECTURE VII. 199

cense" means a growing healthy, and when a patient is regaining health he is a " convalescent." To "countervail" is to act against with equal power;* and is of similar meaning with " equiva­lent," which signifies of equal value or force. An "invalid" is one who is without health; and to " invalidate" is to weaken or deprive of all force and efficacy. To " prevail" is to exceed in strength, being strong before others. The " pre­valence" of a report or of an opinion denotes that it gains strength. " Prevalent" also meant pre­vailing in force, or victorious.† The negatives of " availing" and " available" are formed by the English prefix un.

From veho, to carry, vectus, carried, we have " vehement" and " vehemence," implying being carried away, applied both literally and metapho­rically. A " vehicle" is a carriage, or that by which any thing is conveyed. The derivation of the term applied to the science of the physiology of horses, " veterinary," is not very plain, but there is no doubt that the word may be traced to this root; veterinum, the Latin for a beast of burden, being itself derived from veho, to carry. To " convey" means to carry; and a " convoy"

• " Who, soon prepar'd to field, his sword forth drew,

And him with equal valour countervail' d"

Spencer's Fairy Queen. † " On the foughten field,

Michael and his angels prevalent encamping."—Milton.

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is one sent in a "conveyance" or carriage, for protection; it is also applied to a ship of war so guarding other vessels conveying troops or mer­chandize. A " conveyancer," in legal phrase, is one who draws up " conveyances," that is, instru­ments or deeds by which property is transferred.* This word was formerly used in the sense of secret management or trick, and the substitution of one thing for another.† To " reconvey" is to carry back. To " inveigh" means literally to carry against, and is applied to assailing with oppro­brious language; and such style of speech is called "invective."

From the frequentative of veho, vexo, to toss agitate, we have " vex" and " vexatious,"

or

meaning tossed about. A subject of much dis­cussion is with this signification called a vexed question; and the term is also applied to the sea agitated with the winds, or by the oars of a boat.‡ " Convex" means carried up, as the outbowed side of a vessel is above the concave or inside,

* "The very conveyancer of his lands will hardly lie in this box; and must the inheritor himself have no more"?—Hamlet, Act v. sc 1. † " Can they not juggle, and with slight Conveyance play with wrong and right ? "

Butler's Hudibras.

‡ " Alack 'tis he; why he was met e'en now, As mad as the vext sea, singing aloud."

Shakspeare: Lear. Act iv. sc. 4. " Rang'd on the banks, beneath our equal oars, White curl the waves, and the vex'd ocean roars."—Pope.

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Velo, to conceal, gives us "veil" or "vail," that which is used to hide any thing from view; and " reveal," which means to turn back the veil or covering, and thus to " unveil," or make a " revelation" of what had been hidden.

From vendo, to sell, we have " vendor" one who "vends" or sells goods, which are "vendible," or saleable. Hence also we have " venal" applied in a bad sense, implying " venality," or being unduly influenced by money.

From venio to come, and its participle ventus, come, or arrived, we have many English words. To give " vent" to any thing is to allow it a passage through which to come. A " venture" means that which is to come, and the term is applied to any speculation as to events that are " future," which word also may be traced to venturus, the future participle of the verb venio, to come. " Venturesome" is compounded with the English affix signifying partaking of, or in some degree; and denotes being given to specu­late as to future results. " Advent" means coming to; and " adventitious" is coming to, applied to that which is accidental, that is, not essentially inherent. An " adventure" also means a coming to, with a prospective refer­ence. Its original meaning was any thing that is about to come; it is now applied to any thing either coming, or that has come to pass. The term " adventurer" still retains the more proper mean-

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ing, as descriptive of an " adventurous" person who is looking to a future result. An " avenue" is the road coming to, or the approach to a house, and generally suggests the idea of trees, as such approaches were formerly between rows of stately timber. The word has come to us through the French, as its termination indicates. To " cir­cumvent" is to come about; and " circumvention" implies a coming round one in a deceitful manner. To " contravene," of French origin, is to come against. To " convene" is to cause to come together; and a "convention" means a meeting together of the representatives of two or more nations or parties, for a settlement of affairs. "Convenient" and " conveniency" imply a coming together of circumstances, in an agreeable manner; the opposite is denoted by the negative prefix in, and formerly by the English prefix un, with a similar signification. A " convent" is a place where persons come together, for seclusion. The word was formerly used as a verb.* A " con­venticle" originally meant any meeting together ;† but has come to be applied to meetings for religious worship, which in less enlightened times than the

* " When that is known, and golden time convents, A solemn combination shall be made Of our dear souls."— Twelfth Night. Act v.

†" Aye, all of you had laid your heads together, Myself had notice of your conventicles."

Henry VI. P. 2, Act iii

LECTURE VII.

203

present were proscribed by law. The term " covenanters" also recalls times of persecution, when the Scotch entered into a solemn league and covenant, on the subject of religion. A " covenant" is a compact, or agreement; and the conditions in a deed are called " covenants," as expressing what has been agreed upon by the executing parties, who have come together. " Conventional" means stipulated or agreed upon; and the term is used to denote the forms by which imaginary animals, and allegorical allusions or historical facts, are represented by artists, as if by compact, although in fact only tacitly under­stood and agreed upon. An " event" is that which comes out of circumstances; it signifies the end of the means used, and the result in which they "eventuate." To "intervene" and "interven­tion" refer to that which comes between. An " invention" is any thing found out, or that has come into the mind of a person, thence called an " inventor" and designated " inventive." An " inventory" is an account of all things found in a house or other place. A " misadventure" is an unlucky adventure, being formed capriciously by the English prefix mis, for not or wrong. " Peradventure" means by or through accident or chance, the plain English being mayhap, although the hybrid word perhaps is more common.* To prevent" is to go before; and as this may be

• See English Roots, page 170. Third Edition.

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LECTURE VII.

done with a view either to stop one's progress, or to lead one on, the word is to be found used in both senses; but now it is usually restricted to the former meaning, being applied to a hind­rance, as the words " preventive" and " preven­tion" are now employed to denote.* " Revenue," which comes to us through the French, means that which comes back to us—the return of gain or profit. To " supervene" is to come over or above, that is, to come in addition to; and " supervention" is the act of supervening.

Vergo, to tend towards, to verge, gives us a few words, as " converge" to verge together; and " diverge", to verge asunder; with their subde-rivatives, " convergence" and " convergent," " divergence" and " divergent."

From VERTO, to turn, and its participle versus, turned, we have many English words. " Versa­tile" and " versatility" imply a turning about. " Verse" is a term now generally applied to poetry, except where it is used to designate a portion of a chapter in Scripture. The word was originally derived from the lines formed by the stylus, corresponding to our pen, turning up the wax. A " version" is the turning of one language into

• An example of the use of the word prevent, as going before in the sense of assisting, may be found in the Collect for Easter-day, and in the 4th Collect after the Oftertory, in the Book of Common Prayer. The word may also be found used in the sense of coming before, without implying either aid or hindrance—Psalm cxix. 14.8.

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205

another. To be " versed " in any thing means to turn about, to become experienced or skilled in it. The " vertebras" are the joints in the back bone, whereby the animal is enabled to turn. " Vertical" means turning, and the term is applied to the point in the zenith, around which the heavens are said to turn. " Vertigo" means a turning in the head, a giddiness. To " advert" is to turn to; and " adverse" means turned against. An " adversary" is one who opposes; and " ad­versity" means a turn of affairs against one. To "advertize" is to turn attention towards; and to " animadvert" means to turn the mind to, being compounded with the substantive animus, the mind. " Anniversary" is also compounded with a substantive, annus, a year; and signifies the , turning of the year. To " avert" is to turn away from; and " aversion" implies a turning away in displeasure. To " controvert" is to turn against, and " controversy " means such a turning against another's opinions. To " convert" is to turn toge­ther, or towards another. " Conversion" is a change, commonly used in a religious sense. " Con­vertible" terms are such as are so much alike that one may be used for the other. " Conversation" is a word now usually restricted to discourse; but it was formerly applied in a much wider sense, to signify the manner of life ;* as the term " conver-

* "Our conversation is in heaven."—Phil. iii. 20.

" Let your conversation bo such as becometh the Gospel." Phil. i. 2 7.

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LECTURE VII.

sant" is still used, to imply a constant habit—being well acquainted with. To " converse " is to hold intercourse with another. To " divert" is to turn away from; and amusements are called " diver­sions," and are said to be diverting, as turning away the mind for a time from study or business, for the sake of recreation. To " diversify" is to cause to be different, being compounded of dis and versus, with fio, to make. " Diversity " means difference or variety—a turning in different directions, as implied by the prefix di for dis. " Inadvertent" and " inadvertency" imply a want of " adverting," or turning the thoughts to the subject in hand. To " invert" is to turn inwards and from its proper course; " inversion" means a turning upside down; and " inverse" is opposed to direct. To " observe" is to turn against, or before one's eyes. The " obverse" of a coin or medal is the opposite side turned to view. " Ob-versant" is used by Bacon, as equivalent to conversant; meaning familiar with, as being frequently before us. To " pervert" is to turn thoroughly, and is, like the substantive " perver­sion," always applied in a bad sense, to indicate a turning altogether from a right course. " Per­verse" means obstinately wrong—cross-grained; and " perversity" means " perverseness" or " cross­ness." To " revert" is to turn again; the " reverse" is the opposite, that which has been turned again; and " reversion," as of property, is the returning of it, after a certain time, to the person who until

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that period arrives is said to have a " reversion­ary" interest therein. To " subvert" is to turn from under; and hence "subversion" means overturning. " Tergiversation" means turning the back, compounded with the substantive tergum, the back, and is applied to a change or abandonment of principle. To " transverse" is to turn over or across; and a " traverse," in a court of law, means an opposition to a motion; as when a grand jury presentment is " traversed" it means that it is crossed by an objection. The term " travesty," applied to a burlesque, when any thing is so turned or twisted as to make it ridicu­lous, comes to us through the French. The " universe" means the entire mundane system; and an " university," originally denoting any incor­poration, is now applied to a large seminary of learning. These terms, as also the words " uni­versal" and "universality," imply an union of all, comprehending the whole, the derivation being from the participle of this verb versus, compounded with unus, signifying one; denoting a turning of the whole round one common centre. To " di­vorce" is to turn in different directions; and a " divorce" is a separation of those who had been united. A " vortex" is a whirlpool, or any thing turned round with violence, derived from verto or vorto, to turn.

Video, to see, and its participle visus, seen, supply the root of many English words. When

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we meet with the term " vide," it is simply the imperative mood, second person singular, See thou. The " visage" is that which may be seen, the aspect. The " visage" or " visor," also with z, is the opening of the helmet, through which the wearer sees, also that which covers the visage or countenance. "Visible" and "visibility," mean that may be seen, as the opposite terms, formed by the negative prefix in, signify what cannot be seen. A " vision" is that which is seen; and is often applied to a spectre, or phantasm, as " visionary" means fantastical or imaginary. To " visit" is to go to see, from visito, a frequenta­tive of video; and the person who pays the " visit" is a " visitor," more properly spelt " visiter," who is also called the " visitant." The verb to " visit,"* is often used in the sense of punishing; as implying an earnest looking on the criminal, and an attentive consideration of his crime; but although commonly so applied, it originally meant regarding with pleasure or dis­pleasure, either feeling being denoted by opening the eyes and turning them upon the object of regard or attention. A " visitation" denotes a formal inspection by one invested with " visito-rial," or more properly " visitatorial," powers. " Visual," a word that has come to us through

• " I will visit their offences with the rod."—Ps. lxxxix. 32. " Visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon the children."

Exod. xx. 5.

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209

the French, means used in sight, instrumental to sight, as the visual nerve. To " advise" is to admonish, to give " advice," which means a look­ing to; and the word is also used in the sense of informing by letter, and thu3 putting the intelli­gence before your correspondent's sight. " Evi­dent" and " evidence" imply a clear seeing, or making a matter manifestly to appear. " Envy," " envious," and " invidious" denote a looking upon another; and are applied in a bad sense to mean a looking with an evil eye, and with dis­pleasure at the merit and prosperity of another. To "provide" is to look forth; and a "provident" person is one who looks before him; the opposite being formed by the negative prefix im. " Pro­vision" means that which is prepared by the " provider," who has been on the look out, to secure what is required. " Provender" is the term applied to what is provided for cattle; and the person who looks after this is called a " providore," from the French. A "provisional," or rather a " provisionary," government means such as is appointed for present need, indicating that it is only temporary. A " proviso" means a stipula­tion orcondition, implying that certain things will be done, provided that others are.* The watchful

• " . . . . He doth deny his prisoners ; But with this proviso and exception, That we, at our own charge, shall ransom strait His brother-in-law."—Henry IV. Part 1, Act i.

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LECTURE VII.

care of His creatures by the Almighty is called "providential;" and the term "providence" is used to denote the divine superintendence.* " Prevision" is an obsolete word found in old authors, and signifying foresight. "Prudent," con­tracted from provident, means foreseeing; the opposite of which is formed by the prefix im for in, as a negative. A " purveyor" is one who " purveys," a word borrowed from the French, and of similar signification with provide. To " revise" is to look over again, and a " revision" is the act of so doing. The word is also used as a noun, and so applied by printers to a second proof of a sheet corrected. To " revisit" is to visit again; and to " supervise" is to look over. A " supervisor" is an officer whose duty it is to overlook or inspect. Of similar derivation, but of different application, is a " surveyor," a word commonly used to denote one who looks over ground, with a view to its measurement. This word has come to us through the French, in which language sur is put for the Latin super. While " provident" is negatived by the prefix im, " pro­vided" has for its opposite " unprovided," and " visit" has " unvisited." A " vista" is a sight or prospect through trees. A " vis-a-vis" is French, and means a carriage in which the passengers sit

* " The world was all before them, where to choose Their place of rest, and Providence their guide."

Milton's Paradise Lost.

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211

face to face. " Videlicet," written viz. is the Latin for You may see; and signifies, to wit, that is, to cause you to see or know. A " vedette," which like other military terms comes through the French, means a sentinel on horseback, one sent forward to take a view.

Vinco to conquer (VICTUS, conquered), gives us " vincible" and " invincible," that may and that may not be conquered. A " victim" is one conquered and in the power of another; supposed to have been so called because slain with the hand (manus) after a victory. A " victor" is a conqueror, and " victory" the conquest gained; of which the adjective is " victorious." The name of our gracious Queen is the Latin for victory. To " vanquish," meaning to subdue, comes from this root, but through the French, vaincre. To " convince" is to subdue or over­power in argument ; and to " convict" upon a trial is to prove a man guilty of the thing charged, whereupon he is called a " convict." The word "conviction" is also applied metaphorically to denote a strong and overpowering feeling on the mind, whereby it is forced to yield as to a con­queror. The term is found in Shakspeare in the sense, now obsolete, of overpowering, literally*

* " When Duncan is asleep, his two chamberlains Will I with wine and wassel so convince, That memory, the warder of the brain, Shall be a fume."—Macbeth Act i. sc. 7.

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To " evince" is to conquer, and hence metaphori­cally, to overthrow in argument. To " evict" is to adjudge to be forfeited; and hence an "evic­tion" means a putting out of possession, after the party has been overcome in a legal proceeding. " Province" is a word which we have from the ancient Romans; and was used originally to desig­nate a far off country that had been subdued to their dominion, the prefix pro being put for procul, signifying far off. It has long come to be applied to any region or district of a country.

VindĬco, to revenge, gives us " vengeance," " vindictive," and " vindictiveness;" all used in a bad sense. Also " vindicate," " vindication," and a "vindicator," implying the redress of wrongs, and hence the assertion of innocence. To " avenge" is to take " vengeance," or retribution of wrong, against another, and he that executes such is an " avenger." " Revenge" is punishment by way of retaliation for injury received ; and a " revengeful" is a very unchristian temper. Vindico itself may be traced to the two Latin words, vim and dico, meaning to denounce force or violence against another.

Vivo, to live, (victus, lived) forms the root of more words than the preceding verbs. Hence come " vivacious'' and " vivacity," meaning lively or full of life; the former word being also used to describe tenacity of life. " Viva-voce" is the Latin for with a living voice, and the term is used

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213

to distinguish oral from written examination. A " vivary" is a place for keeping live animals. " Vivid" and " vividness" denote what is lively, or quick, as flashes of lightning are said to be; and striking, as bright colours are described. To " vivify" is to make alive, being compounded of vivo and fio. Animals that bring forth their young alive are called " viviparous," as dis­tinguished from oviparous, produced from an egg. " Viands" and " victuals" are the meats that sustain life; both words applied to cooked food, and coming to us through the French, as culinary words commonly do. " Vital" means necessary to life ; and a " vital" part is such as is the seat of life. The " vitals," of which there is no singular, are parts of the body essential to life. " Vitality" is the power of subsisting in life. " Convivial" and " conviviality" indicate a living together, as implied by the prefix con mean­ing in company with. To " revive" is to live again; and a " revival" signifies a recovery or renovating of life. To " survive" is to live over, that is, beyond; the Saxon or English corre­sponding term being to outlive. This word, like all in which the prefix sur for super occurs, comes through the French. Hence we have also " survivor," " survivorship," and " survival;" all denoting living beyond a certain time, person, or event.

Voco to call, and vocĀtus, called, supply the

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roots of several words in common use. " Vocal" music is that of the voice, as distinguished from what is instrumental; and a " vocalist" is a singer; the word " voice" being the English of the Latin noun vox, itself derived from voco. A man's "vocation" is his calling; that to which he is called. The " vocative," in grammar, is the case of calling. To " vociferate" is to shout, to call out; being compounded of vox, (vocis,) the voice, and fero, to carry. " Vociferation" is the act of thus carrying out the voice in a " vociferous" man­ner. " Advocacy" is the duty of an " advocate," or one called to, that he may come to one's aid. " Avocation" means a calling away from; and is applied to the business that calls one away from other pursuits. A " convocation" is a body of per­sons " convoked," or called together. To "equivo­cate" is to speak with a double meaning—intend­ing to deceive; and "equivocation" implies the use of words with equal, and therefore ambi­guous or •" equivocal" meaning; that may be applied equally to one thing or the other.* To " evoke" is to call out from; to "invocate" is to call to, or upon; to " provoke" is to call forth; and to " revoke" is to call back. From the same root,

* '' These sentences, to sugar or to gall,

Being strong on both sides, are equivocal."

Othello. Act i. sc. 3. " I pull in resolution and begin To doubt the equivocation of the fiend, That lies like truth."—Macbeth. Act v. sc. 5.

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215

and of similar signification, respectively, are "invocation," "provocation," and "revocation." " Irrevocable" means that cannot be recalled; applicable to a promise or a solemn declaration.* A "vocabulary" is a small dictionary or cata­logue of " vocables," or words. To " avouch" or "vouch" is to give one's word; and a " voucher" is a warrant or pledge of abiding by one's word. To " vouchsafe" is to vouch safely, that is, to permit anything without danger; the word is generally used in the sense of condescending to grant. A " vowel" is a letter that may be sounded by itself ; while a consonant can be sounded only when accompanied by another letter.

Volvo, to roll, and its past participle volutus, rolled, give us " voluble" and " volubility," im­plying facility of folding or rolling up. These terms are applied to a rapid utterance of words; formerly in a good sense, like fluent and fluency. A "volume" is so called, because books were originally written on rolls folded up. " Volu­minous" is used to describe what is bulky or dif­fusive; as it were occupying many volumes. In architecture, a "volute" is that part of the capital of a Grecian column which is turned in spiral lines, as specially remarkable in the Ionic order. " Circumvolution" means a turning round about.

* "Had I but said, I would have kept my word, But when I swear, it is irrevocable."

Henry VI. Part 2, Act iii. sc. 2.

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LECTURE VII.

To "convolve"is to roll together; and a well-known flower which rolls up at night is hence called the " convolvolus." To " devolve" means to roll down; and the word is applied to denote that which falls in succession to new hands. To " evolve" is to roll out from, that is, to disentan­gle : as " involve" signifies to roll in, to entangle or complicate. In algebra, the term " evolution" means the extracting of roots from any given power; being the reverse of " involution." " Evo­lutions," in military tactics, are the doubling of ranks or files, wheeling about and counter­marching. To " revolve" is to turn round, as the earth about the sun. To " revolt" is to turn about, or against; and a " revolution" is a change of affairs caused by such turning of the people against those in power. When such a " revolt" is unsuccessful it is called an unnatural rebellion, when successful it is a glorious revolu­tion. " Revolt" is to be found in Shakspeare, in the sense of returning to one's duty or allegiance, the opposite to its present signification.*

Voro, to devour, gives us " voracity," " vora­cious," and "voraciousness ;" all implying a greedy and devouring propensity. Hence also we have to " devour," meaning to eat ravenously

• " The king is merciful, if yon revolt;

But angry, wrathful, and inclined to blood, If you go forward; therefore, yield or die."

Henry VI. Part 2, Act iv.

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217

and like a beast. From this root we have such words as " carnivorous," eating flesh; " gramini-vorous," eating grass ; " granivorous," eating grain; " herbivorous," eating herbs; and "omni­vorous," devouring every thing. These are com­pounded respectively of the substantives caro, flesh ; gramen, grass; granum, grain ; herba, an herb ; and the adjective omnis, all; with the verb voro, to eat or devour, in every instance.

From voveo, to vow, and its participle votus, vowed, we have some English words, of obvious meaning, derived. Of these is " vow," both as a verb and a substantive; a word that comes to us through the French, and usually refers to a promise made to a divine power, or to matrimo­nial promises.* A " votary" means one who is, as it were, " devoted," that is, dedicated by vows, to a particular course or object. A " vote" is a voice in favour of, or devoted to, a particular candidate; and he who gives the vote is desig­nated a " voter." " Votive" means given by vow. To " avow," coming through the French, is to declare with confidence, and without dissimula­tion ; and an " avowal" is an open declaration. To " devote" means to dedicate, or appropriate by a vow or solemn promise; and " devotion" is the act of being consecrated; also applied in the

• " By all the vows that ever men have broke,

In number more than ever woman spoke."—Shakspeare.

218 LECTURE VII.

sense of " devoutness," or piety, and to the acts of religion. " Devotedness" to any pursuit denotes a giving up of one's self to it. " Devout" means pious ; and religious services are hence called " devotional." A " devotee" means one who is superstitiously religious; the term being, like most of the words from this root, borrowed from the French.

With this verb, I conclude this part of the subject under consideration; having traced a great number of words adopted into the English language, from nearly two hundred Latin verbs. I have confined myself, for the most part, to words derived from Latin verbs either simply, or with a prefix taken from a Latin pre­position, with a few compounded of verbs and substantives. I have by no means exhausted this

part of the subject; but have contented myself

with the exotics in our composite English lan­guage, derived from Latin verbs, that are most generally known and in common use.

I commenced these Lectures, by repeating what I had stated in a former course, to the

effect that, while we should adhere as much as

possible to the purely Saxon style, and must give a preference to words formed from English Roots, we are not to depreciate the Exotics or words transplanted into our language from foreign tongues. To this observation I may add the fact,

LECTURE VII.

219

that it is not possible wholly to discard words of foreign derivation; in proof of which it may be observed, that an advocate for the exclusive use of words of Anglo-Saxon origin, will find himself compelled to employ words of Latin derivation, even in his denunciation of such words and his advocacy for purer English. Our language is composite; and we cannot therefore fully under­stand it, or properly employ it, if we reject any one of the elements of which it has been formed. The importance of the Exotic roots, to some of which I have been directing your attention in these Lectures, may be seen (as has been observed by a writer on the subject at the present day) from the fact that " from pono and positum, we have in English two hundred and fifty words; from plico, two hundred; from fero and latum, one hundred and ninety-eight; from specio, one hundred and seventy-seven; from mitto and missum, one hundred and seventy-four; from teneo and tentum, one hundred and sixty-eight; from capio and captum, one hundred and ninety-seven ; from tendo and tensum, one hundred and sixty-two; from duco and ducturn, one hundred and fifty-six."* These nine verbs, therefore, to which I have, amongst many others in the Latin language, called your attention, enter into the composition of about 1,700 English words.

• Hand-book of the English Tongue : By S. Angus, 1862.

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LECTURE VII.

And farther, it has been calculated, that "one hundred and fifty-four Greek and Latin primi­tives yield nearly 13,000 words," in the present English tongue; being about one-third of the words to be found in English dictionaries. It is manifest, therefore, that we cannot ignore this numerous class of words derived from Exotics, or roots transplanted into the soil of our lan­guage from the dialects of ancient Greece and Rome; and, moreover, that no one can be a good speaker or writer who would exclude such from. his vocabulary.

Having now gone through the principal Latin verbs which form 'exotic roots in our language, I shall in the next Lecture commence the considera­tion of Latin nouns substantive and adjectives that have been similarly introduced into English.

LECTURE VIII.

E NGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVES.

Having enumerated nearly two hundred Latin verbs, as roots from which English words have been formed, either by composition with a Latin substantive, or more frequently by a preposition as a prefix, I now proceed to the consideration of Latin nouns and adjectives, which, without the aid of verbs, come into the composition of English words. These are not so numerous as those derived from verbs; but they are, nevertheless, neither few in number, unimportant in significa­tion, nor unfrequent in use.

Æquus, even or just, gives us " equal," " equa­ble," " equally," and " equality ;" all of obvious signification ; as also " equalize," to make equal, and " equalization." An " equation" is an equal number; and the " equator" is the name given to an imaginary line that is supposed to divide the

222

LECTURE VIII.

globe into two equal parts. An " equiangular" figure is one containing two or more equal angles; and that whose sides are equal is " equilateral." In like manner, " equidistant" means of equal distance; " equilibrium" of equal weight ; and " equipoise'' of equal balance. The " equinox" is the time when the night is equal with the day, and the " equinoctial" gales are those which usually prevail at the period of the equinox. " Equity" and " equitable" imply the administration of equal justice. An "equivalent" means something of equal value. " Equivocal" and " equivocate," came under notice when considering the verb voco, to call; the term implying the use of words of the same or equivalent meaning, in order to deceive. Through the French we have from this root " equivoque." That which is equal to the accomplishment of the end proposed, is said to be " adequate;" if otherwise, it is " inadequate," that is, not equal to it—compounded of in as a negative, ad to, and equus, equal. " Coequal" means equal together with another ; and the noun opposed to it is " inequality." The literal meaning of " iniquity" is dissimilarity; and hence it is used in the sense of in-equity, or partiality in judg­ment, and has come to signify any unrighteous­ness, or wickedness generally.

Alter, another, gives us " alter," " alteration," and " alternate;" meaning a change of one thing for another. An " altercation" is- a dispute with

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223

another person. An " alternative" is a choice of one course instead of another. A " subaltern" is an officer under another. " Adultery" is giving to another, and is applied to a husband or a wife forsaking a lawful spouse for another. " Adul­teration" of food, now much spoken of and exposed, is an adding other ingredients to the material professedly given as "unadulterated."

Anima, the spirit or life, is the root of " animal," applied to any creature that has life; of which " animalcule" is the diminutive. To " animate" is to put life into; of which " anima­tion" is the noun, and its opposite, " inanimate." To " reanimate" is to restore to life; and " exani­mate," a word now obselete, means lifeless, as if the spirit had gone out of the body.

Animus is the mind, and gives us "animadvert" and " animadversion," implying a turning of the mind towards an object.* " Animosity" originally meant no more than spiritedness, but has come to be applied to anger rooted in the mind, where the animus is said to be in an opposite channel.† " Equanimity" describes an evenness of mind or temper; "magnanimity" is greatness of mind; " pusillanimity" means littleness of mind ; and "unanimity" oneness of mind, or agreement of sentiment. It is unnecessary to enumerate the corresponding adjectives and adverbs.

• See Lecture VII. p. 205.

† See Trench On the Study of Words, 9th Edit. p. 54.

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LECTURE VIII.

Annus, a year, supplies the root of words of obvious meaning; as " annual" or yearly, " bien­nial" relating to two, " triennial" to three years ; also " septennial" applicable to seven years, and " perennial" to continued years. " Annals" are the records of the events of years, and an "annalist" is the compiler of such a history. An "annuity" is a yearly payment, and an " annuitant" is the person to whom it is payable; these terms are limited to payment for the life­time either of the party paying or receiving it. The "millennium" is a period of one-thousand years. To " superannuate" is to give one who has served in any office a " superannuation" allow­ance on retiring: the word means above or beyond the year or time of service.

AntĪquus, ancient, gives us " antiquary" and " antiquarian," a lover or student of " antiquities." The word " antique" comes through the French. " Ancient" is old, and " antiquated" means old fashioned. Tricks and manners that are antique, and odd, are called "anticks;" a word that has come to us through the French. As a substan­tive, " ancient"* was formerly used to describe a

" Pist. Save you, Sir John! Fals. Welcome, ancient Pistol."

Henry IV. Part 2, Act ii. sc. 4. " This is Othello's ancient, as I take it,— The same indeed, a very valiant fellow."

Othello. Act v. sc. 1.

LECTURE VIII.

225

standard-bearer (now called an ensign) ; as in Shakspeare, Falstaff calls Pistol his " ancient."

Arma is arms, of which there is no singular. Hence come " arm," " arms," and " army;" like­wise, through the French, " armour," " armory" and " armorial." The Spanish " armada" was an " armament" intended for the invasion of England. An " armistice" means a temporary cessation of warfare, compounded with the verb sto to stand

Ars, (artis)* an art, or skill, gives us " art," " artist" and " artisan ;" likewise, " artifice," "artificer," and "artificial;" each compounded with the verb facio to make. "Artful" and "artless" are applied metaphorically, to signify, respectively, cunning and openness—-full of art, and without artifice.

Bellum, war, is the root of such " bellicose" words as " rebel," " rebellious," and "rebellion," applied to civil war. " Belligerent" means carrying on a war, compounded with the verb gero to bear or carry.

Bonus, good, supplies " boon," meaning a good gift. " Bonus" is used as a noun of similar signification, although differently applied. Hence also we have " bounty," " bounteous," and "bountiful," abounding in goodness, and implying

• Whenever two words are given, the first is the nominative, and the second the genitive case : and in such instances the words given are derived from the genitive.

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LECTURE VIII.

gifts as a practical proof of it. In the introduc­tory Lecture I noticed words derived from the adverb benè, signifying well.* From the compa­rative of bonus, melior, we have " ameliorate" to make better.

BrĔvis, short, gives "brevity" and "brief;" the latter term being applied as a noun to an ab­stract of the facts brought to the notice of counsel, not always very short. To "abbreviate" is to shorten by cutting off a part, indicated by the prefix ab; and an " abbreviation" is a writing so cut short. " Abridge" and " abridgment," of similar meaning, may be from the same root.

Calculus is a small stone or pebble; and as the ancient Romans reckoned by these, like the balls used in our Infant schools, the terms " calculate" and " calculation" were applied to a reckoning up of a sum. This verb is now used as an Americanism, like " I guess;" and ought to be carefully avoided. " Incalculable" is a good word in common use, to describe any thing that is of inestimable value. To " miscalculate" is to calculate wrongly—to be out in one's reckoning, the prefix being Saxon.

Campus is an open field or plain; and hence we have a " camp" and " encampment," being in the open fields. To " decamp" is to run away, as a routed army from the field. A " campaigne,"

* See Lecture I. page 20.

LECTURE VIII.

227

taking the field, and a " champion," like most military terms, have come to us through the French ; as also " champagne" the name of a wine made from vines growing in an open country and extensive plain. "Champaign" means a flat open country.* To " scamper" away is to fly from the field, compounded of ex and campo. From caput (capĪtis) the head, we have many well-known English words. Hence come "cap," " chaplet," and " cape," intended for the head and shoulders; " cap-a-pie" is French, meaning armed from head to foot. The word " capital" is variously applied, but always with the same signification as referring to the head or chief and uppermost part. Thus the " capital" is the chief city of any country; in architecture, the topmost part of a pillar is the "capital;" whatever is considered as done in the first and best manner is vulgarly called " capital," and is said to be " capitally" executed. "Capital" punishment literally referred to taking off the head, or " decapitation;" but the phrase is now applied to the penalty of death, by whatever means effected. The " chapters" of a book are the divisions of it into its several heads; and the word is also applied to designate the heads or chiefs of the clergy, under the title of the Dean and " Chapter," and the acts of such a

• " From his side two rivers flow'd,

Th' one winding, th' other straight, and left between Fair "champaign, with loss trees interven'd."—Milton.

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LECTURE VIII.

body are called " capitular." To " capitulate" is to enter into an engagement under several heads first agreed upon. A " captain" is an officer at the head of his ship or company. To " recapi­tulate" is to recount, or tell over again the heads of any agreement or argument. "Precipitate" means going head foremost; and a " precipice"is a place down which one would fall headlong.

Causa is a cause or reason, giving us " cause," " causeless," and " causality." To " accuse" is to bring a cause or charge to or against a person; as, on the other hand, to " excuse" is to get a person out of blame. A "recusant" is one who denies or takes away the cause, and refuses to admit any knowledge of it. "Because," anciently " bycause," means by reason of; because of his sickness means his sickness being the cause.

Centrum, the centre, or middle point, gives us " centre," and " central," meaning in the middle. A " centrifugal" force is that which drives or flies out from the centre, compounded with fugio to fly; while on the other hand " centripetal" means seeking or tending to the centre, from peto to seek. To " concentrate" is to bring together to one centre; and " eccentric" means out of the centre, and is generally applied meta­phorically to strange and outlandish behaviour.

From the adjective certus, certain or sure, we get " certain," " certainly" and " certainty." To

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229

" certify" is to assure or make sure, and a " certi­ficate" is a document intended to prove the cer­tainty of the fact. To " ascertain" is to find out that which is " ascertainable;" and " incertitude" is " uncertainty."

Cīvis, a citizen, gives us " civil," " civility," " civilize," and " civilization;" all implying that a residence in a city is calculated to give refine­ment. Of similar meaning are polite and polished, as applied to manners, derived from polis the Greek for a city. " Civil" war, the most " un­civilized" of all wars, means a war between fellow-citizens, or inhabitants of the same country. " Civic" honours are those connected with a city corporation; and a " civilian" is a man who possesses a knowledge of the old Roman law, and of general equity. The opposite to " civil" is formed by the negative prefix un, but that of " civility" by the prefix in, of the same import.

From cor (cordis), the heart, we have several words. Hence comes " core," the heart of an apple; and the word is applied figuratively, to describe coming to the very heart or middle of a subject. " Cordial" is hearty, and " cordiality" heartiness. " Accord" and " accordant" signify giving the heart to any thing. " According" to means in " accordance" or agreement with " Concord" implies unison of heart, agreeing together. A book which points out in what places in Scripture, or in any work, the same

230 LECTURE VIII.

word occurs is called a " concordance." In grammar, "concord" means the relation of one word to another, distinct from regimen. " Dis­cord" is a division of heart or sentiment; and is applied to sounds not in harmony, and designated " discordant." To record any thing is to call it to the heart; as to remind is to bring it back to the mind or understanding. " Courage" and " courageous" imply heartiness, strength of heart and soul; and to "encourage" is to put heart into another, which is giving " encouragement." Corpus (corpŎris) is the body. Hence comes "corpse" a dead body; and "corps" a body of men. This latter, as well as " corporal," the name of a non-commissioned officer placed over a body of men, comes through the French. Municipal office-bearers are called a " corporate" body, as being a " corporation" or body of men " incorporated" by charter. " Corpulence" means grossness of body. " Corporal," as an adjective and " corporeal" are of somewhat similar meaning, namely, material, not spiritual. Dr. Johnson, however, makes a distinction, which he shews by quotations from Shakspeare and Milton is not ancient.* He observes, "In the present language,

*".... Whither are they vanish'd ? Into the air, and what seem'd corporal Melted, as breath, into the winds."—Macbeth. Act i. sc. 3. " And from these corporal nutriments, perhaps, Your bodies may at last turn all to spirit."—Paradise Lost.

LECTURE VIII. 231

when body is used philosophically in opposition to spirit, the word corporeal is used, as a corporeal being ; but otherwise corporal. Corporeal is having a body; corporal, relating to the body." "Incorporeal" means immaterial, unbodied.

From crimen (crimĬnis) a crime, we have the nouns " crime" and " criminality;" and the noun and adjective "criminal." To "criminate," a word not found in Johnson's Dictionary, is to charge with crime; and "crimination" is the act of accusing. To " discriminate" is to separate from charge of crime; and hence " discrimination" means discernment of the truth. To " recrimi­nate" is to accuse again, to retort or throw back a charge upon another.

Culpa, a fault, forms the root of "culpable," and " culpability:" implying chargeable with blame; also of "inculpate," to charge with a fault. On the other hand, to " exculpate" is to clear oneself or another from all blame.

From cura, cure, and also care, we have

several words, besides the obvious ones " care"

and " cure," which words were formerly used

indiscriminately: also " careless" and "cureless."

A " curate" is one who has the " cure" of souls in

a parish committed to his " care." Hence the

appellation properly belongs to the principal

clergyman or incumbent of a parish; and is so

applied on the Continent, where the parish priest

is the Curè. In this sense it is that the word is

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LECTURE VIII.

introduced into the common prayer book, where prayer is made "for bishops and curates, and all congregations committed to their charge." The correct title for what is now understood by a curate is an assistant curate, that is, an assistant to the clergyman who has the cure of souls. The same remarks apply to a " curacy," which pro­perly signified a benefice. The care-taker of a museum is called a " curator." " Curative" means relating to the cure of diseases. " Curious" is used by old writers as equivalent to " careful," full of care and of nicety, and thus it came to mean exact and highly finished ;* implying also an anxiety to know or understand, peering into things ;† and hence " inquisitive," having " curiosity" about matters. " Accurate," and " accuracy" imply a careful looking to, perform­ing an object with care; of which the opposites are " inaccurate," and " inaccuracy;" and " incurious" means wanting " curiousness." " Secure" and " security" are supposed by some to be com­pounded of se apart, and cura care, as implying a separate concern about a matter; but the most probable derivation seems to be sine curd, without care. Of these the opposites are " insecure" and

• " And to devise curious works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass."—Exod. xxxv. 32.

† "Many of them also which used curious arts brought their books together, and burned them before all men."—Acts, xix. 19.

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233

" insecurity," as requiring care and watchfulness. To " procure" is to take care for, to take care that a thing is done, and hence to obtain the object in view. " Procuracy'' and " procurator" have been contracted into proxy and proctor. In each case the word implies a taking care for another. A " sinecure" is an office to which no care or duty is attached.

The Latin adjective dignus, worthy, is the root of " dignity," " dignitary," and " dignify." " Dig­nified " means made great, compounded with fio. To " deign" is to think or esteem worthy, namely, of notice; and hence it is used in the sense of condescending. " Disdain" and " disdainful," on the other hand, imply a feeling against another as being unworthy of regard. These words have come to us through the French; and in the first example, the French form eig is retained, though not in the latter case. " Condign" likewise comes through the French, and means esteemed worthy or deserving, whether of reward or punishment; restricted by common use to the latter. Chaucer has " indign," for unworthy; and Shakspeare also has it as an adjective;* and "indignant," still in use, means being sensible of unworthy or unde­served treatment; and hence feeling a disdainful anger or resentment against the offender.

• " And all indign and base adversities

Make head against my reputation."—Othello. Act i. sc. 3.

234 LECTURE VIII.

DomĬnus, a lord, gives "domain," "domination," and " dominion;" the former word is also spelt " de- main," and "demesne," and is derived through the French. Custom leads to the adoption of domain when dominion is intended; restricting the latter word to a private demense of the lord of the soil. To " domineer" is to rule with insolence—playing the lord, or lording it over one, always used in abad sense; and " don" is applied contemptuously. " Dominant" means prevailing over others; and" predominant" is of similar signification, but a stronger word, as implying rule above and before

all. A. D. is put for anno domini, in the year of

our Lord.

Domus, a house, gives us " dome," " domestic,"

and " domesticate;" also " domicile," and " domi-

ciliary," all relating to a house or dwelling place. The Latin noun dominus may itself have been derived from domus, to describe the master of the house.

Durus is hard; and as what is hard is more lasting than a soft substance, we derive from this root "durable," "duration," and "durability." To "indure" literally means to make hard, and hence it signifies lasting; and "endurance" also denotes forbearance, or long-suffering.* These words are spelt with e or i; but to " indurate" or harden always with i. " Obdurate" and " obdu-

* " God .... endured with much long-suffering the vessels of wrath."—Rom ix. 22.

LECTURE VIII. 235

racy" imply extraordinary hardness, or obstinacy and impenitency, where no impression can be made; the force of ob as a prefix being to intensify or augment the action indicated. Shakspeare has "perdurable" for lasting, intensified by the prefix per, signifying through or thorough.*

Exemplum, a copy or pattern, gives us " exam­ple;" an "exemplar" that sets a pattern; and "exemplary," that ought to be copied; likewise " sampler" and " sample," which are contractions of " exemplar" and " example ;" also " unex­ampled," without precedent. The Latin exem­plum is itself derived from ex and amplus full, indicating a specimen taken from the whole. From amplus we have " ample" and " amplify."

Externus, outside, foreign, supplies the root of " exterior," " extern," and " external;" as also of "extreme" and "extremity," often applied metaphorically to describe the highest pitch of danger or of misery. " Extrinsic" is foreign, as is also " exotic." " Exoteric" is a term applied to external profession of doctrine, as esoteric denotes what is secret; both terms may be traced to the Greek, and were originally applied to the Pytha­gorean philosophers, and others, who had one doctrine for the vulgar, and another for the initiated. " Strange" is foreign, and to " estrange" is to make strange.

• " I profess me thy friend; and I confess to knit to thy deserving with cables of perdurable toughness."—Othello. Act i. sc. 3.

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LECTURE VIII.

FabŪla means something much spoken of; usually applied to what is untrue. Hence comes a " fable;" also " fabulous" and a " fabulist." In a bad sense we have " fib" and " fibber," mild terms by which to describe falsehood. To " con­fabulate" is to speak together. Hence also we have " affable" and " affability," implying a kind speaking to another ; and " ineffable" means unspeakable.

Facies is the make or outward appearance, being itself derived from facio. Hence the English words " face" and " facing;" also through the French, " faqade," the front of a building. " Fashion" and " fashionable," applying to the outward form, are also derived from this root; likewise " feature," " barefaced," " outface," and "shamefaced," all of obvious meaning. To "efface" is to do away with, or take from, the appearance. The " superficies," literally, upon the face, is the outward " surface," a word of similar derivation and meaning; and "superficial," of like origin, means only outward show. To "fascinate" may come from this root, the allusion being to the supposed power of persons and some animals, to bewitch with the eye, or the aspect of the counte­nance.

The adjective facĬlis, easy, gives us " facile," " facility," and " facilitate;" also " faculty," com­municating the power of easily accomplishing an object. " Difficult" and " difficulty" denote a loss

LECTURE VIII.

237

of facility in doing any thing; dis as a prefix signifying separation and loss. " Fickle" may mean easily turned about.

Fama, fame or repute, gives " fame" and "famous," also "infamy" and "infamous;" all implying renown, or the contrary. " Defame" and " defamation" denote a taking away a good repute from another.

Felix, (felicitis), happy, gives us " felicity," " felicitous," and " felicitate," all indicative of happiness.

Fides, faith, supplies the root of " fidelity," and its opposite "infidelity;¹' as also "infidel," one without faith. To " confide" is to hold faith with, to put trust or " confidence" in another. " Confi­dential " means keeping faith with, and is applied to secret communications which are not to be divulged. " Diffident" and " diffidence" imply the absence of faith or trust in oneself. " Per­fidy" is a modern word, both in French and English, and means breach of trust obtained and given per fidem, through faith, that is, upon a pledge of fidelity on the part of the person trusted. A " perfidious" person is one who treacherously breaks through his promised faith, or fidelity. " Affiance" means a bringing faith to or putting trust in another. " Defy" and " defiance" signify a rejection of affiance, and so have come to mean a denial and challenge.

FigŪra, a shape, gives us "figure" and " figu-

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LECTURE VIII.

rative;" also " effigy," a likeness or image. To " disfigure" is to spoil or take from the proper shape or figure; to " prefigure" is to give a repre­sentation of any person or thing beforehand; and to " transfigure" is to change the form or repre­sentation.* " Configuration" is the form of the. various parts of any thing, as they are adapted to, or unite with each other.

Finis, the end, or boundary, enters into the composition of several words in English. To " finish" is to complete any thing, bringing it on to the very end; and that which is well-finished is called " fine;" as a superlative it is " superfine"; and in a low sense it is "finery." That which is limited in duration, power, or space, is "finite;" otherwise it is "infinite." The "final" blow or act means the last; and in architecture the ornament that terminates or finishes a gable is the " finial." To " confine" is to keep within bounds; to " define" is set out the limits; and hence is used in the sense of describing any thing; and such a description is called a " defini­tion." That which cannot be brought within limits is "indefinite." To "refine" is to finish again ; and hence " refinement" denotes, what is highly finished. " Finical" and " finesse" are words used contemptuously to denote over-fine. " Finance" is a term applied to money, because a

* " And he was transfigured before them; and his face did shine as the sun."—Matt, xvil 2.

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239

payment of a debt puts an end to litigation, pro­viding for a final settlement. A penalty in like manner is called a " fine"; as putting an end to the prosecution or suit at law.* This was a penalty of Norman introduction, and by them so called from the Latin, which prevails in legal forms. Shakspeare has " fineless," for endless or without limit,† —boundless riches, to use a true English word.

Firmus, firm or strong, gives " firm" and " firmness," applicable both to material things and to the mind. The " firmament" is the name given to the heavens, implying solidity and firm­ness of nature. A " firm" is the name or title under which any two or more persons carry on business, because of the firma or signature of the persons who " confirm" or give validity to docu­ments signed by them. To " affirm" is to assert a fact in such a way as to make it sure to the party addressed. An " affirmation" is the act of affirming; and the "affirmative," opposed to the negative, is an assurance of the truth. To " confirm" is to unite one's testimony with that of another, in " confirmation" of the assertion ; and such evidence is said to be " confirmatory" of the

• " Forasmuch as fines levied in our court ought and do make an end of al sutes, and thereof are called fines, chiefly when after waging of battel, or the great assize in their cases, the holde the last and finall place for ever."—Restall, quoted by Richardson.

† Othello, Act iii. sc. 3.

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LECTURE VIII.

facts. " Infirm" means not strong; and an " infirmary" is a place for the safe keeping and care of persons suffering any " infirmity."

Flos (flŎris), a flower or blossom, gives us "florid," in the sense of bright, like a "flower"; and the term is applied, as well as " flowery," to a style of speaking or writing overburdened with ornament. A " florist" is a cultivator of flowers. The verb to " flourish" comes from this root; as does also the " flour" of wheat. This latter word means the finest part of the grain; and therefore, properly speaking, fine flour is a tautology, and coarse flour a contradiction in terms.

Forma, the form or shape, supplies the root of many English words in common use. Hence come " form" and " formation," also " formal" and " formality," the latter usually applied to manners. A " formula" is a particular form set before one; and a " formulary" denotes a set form of prayers. To " conform" is to agree with others' " forms," and he who does so is a " conformist," otherwise a " non-conformist." " Conformable" means like to another; agreeing with, either in exterior or moral character. Shakspeare has it in the sense of compliant or obsequious.* " Conformation" is

* " I've been to you a true and humble wife, At all times to your will conformable."

Henry VIII. Act ii. sc. 4.

LECTURE VIII.

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the form of things, as relating to each other, expressed by con. To " deform" is to take from the form, like deface and disfigure; and this causes " deformity." To " inform" is to impress upon the mind the form or idea of what is meant to be communicated; and that which is thus imparted is " information;" and if it be impro­perly done, so as to mislead, it is to " misinform" and to convey " misinformation." In the word " informal" the prefix in is used as a negative, meaning not according to a prescribed form; and the effect produced is " informality." To " per­form" is to bring a form to its perfect state, to complete or fully to accomplish any thing; and a. " performer" is one who undertakes such a " performance." To " reform" is to form anew or again. A true " reformer" will aim not at destruction but at " reformation." To " trans­form" is to change the form; and a " transfor­mation" of character is a change in the fashion of one's life, usually understood in a good sense as a change for the better.* " Uniform" and " uniformity" imply conformity, oneness or like­ness of form; and hence the dress of soldiers being of one form and fashion is called their " uniform."

Fortis, strong or valiant, gives " fort," " for-

* " Be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind."

Rom. xii. 2.

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LECTURE VIII.

ify," and "fortification"; the two latter com­pounded with fio and facio, signifying made strong. Of like meaning is a " fortress" from the French; and similarly derived is " forte," a term used to denote the strongest part of a man's cha­racter or talent. " Fortitude" is now applied to strength of mind; Shakspeare has it in a literal sense.* To " comfort" is to administer strength and courage to the dejected. " Comfortable" is used in two different senses, either to imply a power of affording comfort, or to signify what is capable of receiving comfort, in which sense it may be found in Shakspeare.† The negative of comfort is formed by the prefix dis, and that of comfortable by un, and anciently by dis. We have also " comfortless," formed by the English affix denoting absence or deprivation. An "effort" is an attempt to put forth strength. " Force" also comes from this adjective, which was for­merly written forctis; as also "forcible," having strength; and " enforce" to make strong or binding with force upon others. To " re-inforce" is to supply strength again to; and a "reinforce­ment" is such a supply to an army.

Frons (frontis), the forehead, gives us " front,"

• " The fortitude of the place is best known to you."

Othello. Act i. sc. 3.

† " For my sake be comfortable; hold death Awhile at the arm's end."

As you like it. Act ii. sc. 6.

LECTURE VIII.

243

" frontal," and " frontlet"; also through the French " frontier," the foremost country, from frons and terra. A " frontispiece" is that which is seen at the front, as a portrait at the commence­ment of a book, from frons and specio. To "affront" is to stand front to front against another, and so applies to an insult offered; to " con­front" is to set the face with or against, to oppose; " effrontery" denotes hardness of front, shame-lessness; expressed by the prefix e contrasting it with shamefacedness, and describing the manner in which a guilty and hardened criminal will sometimes outface his accusers.

Genus (generis) a race or family, a kind or sort, supplies the root of several words. "Gender¹¹ in grammar is a term by which the kind of sex is described. " General" terms are opposed to particular, as species is to genus. The word " general" is also used to designate what is com­mon, usual, and extensive, though not universal. As a noun it is used to describe the main, without insisting on particulars; and in a military sense to the usual commander of an army, also called a " generalissimo;" when he has the supreme com­mand. To " generalize," a word not to be found in Johnson, is to treat of things " generally," as distinguished from particularizing. " Generic" is that which comprehends the genus, but does not distinguish the species. A " generation" signifies a race of men; and to " generate" is to produce

244

LECTURE VIII.

of the same kind. The original meaning of "generous" indicates noble or illustrious birth; and the term is applied, as is " generosity," to describe what is noble and munificent, as becoming such extraction. A "gentleman" is one of good birth, or who evinces the qualities befitting one of noble origin. Of similar signification is " gentry," as are also "gentility," " genteel," and "gentle." The latter term is used to describe what is becoming persons of a superior class, who above all are called upon to evince " gentleness" of demeanour and temper. " Genuine" and " genuineness" denote what is of the right sort, and what really is of the kind and origin which it professes to be. " Congenial" is of the same kind or disposition. The " Gentiles" meant all other nations and fami­lies of the earth, distinguished from the Israel­ites. " Degenerate" and " degeneracy" imply a departure from the proper kind or nature, that is, from what is of good quality and extraction. "Ingenious" means witty or inventive; and is to be distinguished from " ingenuous" from the same root, meaning open and candid. To " en­gender" is to beget of the same kind; the pro­ducer is called a " progenitor;" and the offspring produced is the " progeny." " Primogeniture" indicates the first-born. " Regenerate" means be-gotten again, and the new birth is "regeneration." The negative to adjectives from this root is formed

LECTURE VIII. 245

by the English prefix un, with the exception of " disingenuous."

Gravis, heavy, supplies "grave" for solemn, as if heavy with cares; a word to be distinguished from grave, to engrave, derived from the Greek grapho to write; as also from a grave, from the Anglo Saxon, which latter, when occurring at the end of names of places indicates a grove or cave. " Gravity" means weight, and is applied not only to solemnity, but to describe a weight of guilt. " Gravitate" and "gravitation"are terms employed to indicate the tendency to the centre of attrac­tion, hence called the centre of gravity. " Grief" implies a weight of sorrow on the mind ; to " aggrieve" is to bring such a weight to the mind of another; and such a "grievance" is a " grievous" offence. " Grievously" is also used to describe suffering heavily for any thing.* To " aggravate" and " aggravation" denote a heaping up or accumulating additional wrongs.

Grex (grĒgis) is a flock or herd, and gives us " gregarious," loving to go in company together; and " aggregate," the sum total brought together. To " congregate," is to gather as in a flock, and a " congregation" is an assembly so brought together. " Egregious" means picked out of the

" If it were so, it was a grievous fault; And grievously hath Cæsar answer'd it."

Julius Cæsar. Act iii. st. 2.

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LECTURE VIII.

flock, and indicates something remarkable; it is usually applied in a bad sense. Shakspeare has "segregation," to describe the scattering of a fleet, separation from each others company.*

Hospes (hospĬtis), a host or a guest, gives us " host" an entertainer of guests, of which " hostess" is the feminine; also " hospitable" and " hospitality," the negative prefix in forming the opposite. A " hotel" formerly a "hostel," is a house for the reception of guests, the keeper of which was anciently designated mine host. The servant who used first to receive travellers arriving on horseback, was the " hostler" or " ostler;" hence the name is appropriated to a servant of an inn having the care of horses. Any house of reception for strangers was formerly designated by the term " hospital," a word now restricted to a place for the poor, and chiefly for the sick.

Humus, the ground, gives us "humble," " humbleness" and "humility," implying lowliness of mind; also "humiliate" and " humiliation," a casting down, as it were, on the ground. To "exhume" is to dig out of the ground, and to " inhume" is to bury in the earth. A child born after the father's death is called " posthumous;" a term also applied to publications and fame subsequently to a man's death, or literally, after he has been committed to the ground.

* " A segregation of the Turkish fleet."— Othello. Act ii. sc. 1.

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247

Judex (judĬcis) is a judge ; hence we have " judicial" relating to the office and duties of a " judge," also called a " justiciary;" and who sits in "judgment." "Judicature" and " judicatory" relate to " judgment." The term " judicious" is applied in a general sense to denote what is done with judgment. To "adjudge," "adjudicate," and " adjudication," refer to the decisions of a judge. That which is beyond his province is "extrajudicial." To "misjudge" is to decide amiss; to "prejudge" is to decide before due investigation. " Prejudice" is applied to such pre­judging unfavourably; if otherwise, prepossession is the more suitable term. That which is hurtful or injurious is said to be " prejudicial."

Jus (juris) is right, law, or justice. From this root we have " jurist," one learned in the law. "Jurisdiction" describes the extent to which the authority of executing the law reaches in any particular case. " Jurisprudence" is the science of the law. To " injure" is to deal without or against law; and thus to commit an " injury," the result of which is said to be " injurious."

Justus, just, is an adjective derived from jus; and hence we have "just," "unjust," "jus­tice" and "injustice;" also "justify," to make or declare to be just; "justification," the act of justifying; and "justifiable," what is according to justice.

Labor is toil, whence comes " labour," a

248

LECTURE VIII.

" labourer," and " laborious." To " belabour" is to beat, a word of low usage. To " elaborate" is to produce or bring out with labour ; and a " laboratory" is the work-room where a chemist pursues his labours and studies.

Laxus, loose, gives " lax," " laxity," and " lax-ness." To " relax" is to loosen again what had been bound; " relaxation" is a loosening of the bonds of labour—an unbending of the bow, not to be always kept on the stretch. " Prolix" and " prolixity" denote a lengthening out what it would be better to contract.

Lex (lĒgis) is a law; whence come the words "legal," "legality," and " legalize," to make law­ful ; also " legislate," " legislative," and " legisla­tion." The " legislature" means the three estates of the realm by whom laws are enacted. All these terms, as also " legislator," are compounded of leges laws, and lotus the past participle of fero to bear or carry. " Legitimate" means according to law. " Illegal" and " illegitimate" are nega­tives, formed by the prefix il for in. " Privilege" means a law for private or separate persons, as distinguished from that intended for the public at large. " Law" and " lawyer" " lawful" and " lawfulness," with the opposites formed by the negative prefix un, are derived from this root.

From liber, free, we have "liberal" and " liberality," with the opposites, formed by the negative prefix il for in. To " liberate" is to

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249

make free, the act of a ""liberator," whose work is the "liberation" or freedom of those who had been bound or restricted by unjust laws. A " liber­tine" and "libertinism" denote freedom from due restraint. " Liberty" is freedom, such as we happily enjoy under our free constitution and just laws. To " deliver" is to free from slavery or custody; and hence, to rescue, to release, even if from our own possession, and so it has come to mean simply to give up; and it is also applied to "delivering" commands from the mouth. The noun is " deliverance;" and when applied to giving out from the mouth, it is " delivery."

Liber is a book ; whence we have " library" and "librarian," a place for, and a keeper of books. " Libel" originally meant a little book; the term is now applied only to that which is scurrilous and abusive.

Libra is a balance ; hence comes " librate," to swing to and fro with " libration," being well balanced. " Equilibrium" means equal balance; and to " deliberate" is to weigh well in the mind, in order to act with " deliberation." Libra also signifies a pound, hence the letters Ib. indicate a pound weight; and a crossed £ a pound sterling, denoting a coin equalling a certain number of pieces of money amounting to a fixed weight The English word pound is of Anglo-Saxon origin; but the Latin-derived term denoting a balance is applied both to weights and coins.

250

LECTURE VIII.

Limes (limĬtis) is a boundary. Hence we have "limit," " limited" and "limitation;" as also " limitless," " illimitable" and " unlimited." One often meets with the term " limited" applied to companies or partnerships at the present day; it indicates that the liability is limited in each case to the extent of the several shareholders' interest. To " eliminate" is to set free, or to banish, literally to put from the boundary or limits.

Lis (lĬtis), strife, or lawsuit, is the root of " litigant," " litigate" and " litigation;" as also of " litigious" addicted to strife, and " litigiousness;" all to be avoided as much as possible.

Litera is a letter; giving the English word, whether applied to a single "letter" or to an epistle made up of many. The term " letters" is sometimes applied to learning in general ;* and " lettered" relates to knowledge of books; the opposite being "illiterate." " Literal" means according to the letter. A " literary" person denotes one who is given to letters in the sense of learning; which is called " literature." " Allitera­tion" means a play upon words, employing such as commence with the same letter, made to corre­spond letter to letter. To " obliterate" is to erase the letter.

Locus, a place, gives " local," " locality" and " locate;" as also " locomotion" meaning moving

* " How knoweth this man letters, having never learned ?"

John vii. 15.

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251

from place to place; and a " locomotive" is an engine that has power so to move. To allocate" is to put to its proper place; and to " dislocate" is to put from its place, as a " dislocation" of a limb is putting it out of joint.

Lumen, light, gives " luminary" and " lumi­nous;" also "illume" or "illumine,"* "illuminate," and "illumination;" each implying bringing a light to, or putting a light into, applied both literally and metaphorically. To " relume" is to light up again what had been extinguished or eclipsed. A painter is often designated a " lim­ner," a. term which owed its origin to the " illumi­nating" of manuscripts; which was anciently called "limning."

Magister supplies us with the word " master," its English equivalent; also " mastery," " magis­trate," " magisterial," and " magistracy." These words are to be distinguished from " majesty" and " majestical," derived from the Latin adjective which comes next in order for consideration.

Magnus, is great, of which the more ancient form was majus; whence we have, besides the name of " majesty" (a title first assumed in the 16th century, by the Emperor Charles the Fifth), the inferior titles of "major" and "mayor;" the latter coming to us through the French; but Verstegan and other authorities trace this title to

Illumine."

What in me is dark,

Milton's Paradise Lost.

252 LECTURE VIII.

the Anglo-Saxon verb to may, that is, to be able, to be possessed of power. A youth when he|

-

ceases to be a minor is said to attain his "major- rity," major being the comparative degree of magnus, as minor is of parvus, little. A " maxim," as having the greatest authority, may be traced to maximus, the superlative of magnus. This root also gives us "magnitude" greatness; likewise "magnify" to make great, with "magnifi- cent" and " magnificence," each compounded of this adjective with the verbs fio and facio to make. " Magnanimity," as before observed, means great- ness of mind, implied likewise by " magna- nimous." It may be doubted whether " main," applied much as a prefix, as the main-land, the main-mast, and the main-sea (elliptically the main), be not rather of Anglo-Saxon origin, although some derive it from magnus. " Magni- loquence," like grandiloquence, means greatness of speech; as its derivation implies; both terms being used to describe a lofty or pompous style of speaking. The " Magna charta" is the great charter of our liberties.

From manus, the hand, we have many well-known English words. To " manacle" is to bind the hands; as a fetter, from the Saxon, relates to the feet. To " manage" is, literally, to act with the hand, compounded with this noun and the verb ago to act. " Management" is now applied in a more general sense to denote the superintendence

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253

of a "manager.'' That which may be controlled

is " manageable;" a horse that cannot be held in is

"unmanageable." The labour of the hands, as

distinguished from that of the brain, is called

" manual." A " manufacture," as well as " manu-

facturer" and "manufactory," refers to what is

made by hand. A small book, that,is handy or

may be easily carried in the hand when one is

travelling, is called a " manual," or as it is now

more usually described in plain English, a Hand-

book. To " manipulate" is to handle. A " mani-

ple" means a hand-full of soldiers, from manus and

pleo to fill. To "manumit" is to send from the

hand, that is, to grant freedom to a slave; from

mitto to send. To " emancipate" is of somewhat

similar signification, but indicates the act of a

third person who takes the captive from the hands of another—compounded with capio to take. "Emancipation" is the act of an " emancipator." "Manifest"(from festim immediately) means what we can quickly or at once lay our hands upon — what is clear. " Maintenance" implies a keeping in the hand, compounded with teneo to hold; and to " maintain" is to keep with a strong band; also applied metaphorically to holding an opinion firmly. A "manuscript," from manus and scriptus written, distinguishes a written from a printed document. " Manœuvre" is a French word Anglicized, and means to do any thing dexterously, that is handily (dexter being the

254 LECTURE VIII.

right hand). Like most military terms this word is of Norman origin, to be traced up to the Latin manus and opera works. The word is applied to cunning, and underhand devices to carry a point.

Mater (matris), a mother, gives " matron," and "matronly" or like a matron (such being the force of the affix ly by which English adverbs are usually formed); also " matronize," to act as a mother to a younger person. " Maternal" means motherly, the Saxon and more endearing term. " Matrimony" and " matrimonial" also come from this root. When a student first enters a university he is said to " matriculate;" his " matriculation" being his adoption as a son to his alma mater, or fair mother, as his college is designated.

MatŪrus is ripe, whence we have " mature;" and when a youth attains to years of discretion he is said to come to " maturity." The terms are also applied literally to fruits; which when unripe are called " immature." The latter word is more usually applied metaphorically to describe what is not ready or made perfect. " Premature" means ripe before the time, and the word is used to describe what only appears ready when really incomplete; and thence measures taken on the pre­sumption that all is ripe for action, are said to be taken " prematurely," or before they are ripe.

LECTURE IX.

E NGLISH WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVES.