4 Lecture I.
people first arrived in Britain, cannot now be known. As they appear to have been altogether destitute of learning, their language must have been very artless and unconnected, and probably only oral, and not written. In about a century after their first arrival, Christianity was introduced amongst the Saxons; and with it, doubtless, a certain degree of civilization and learning. But it was not until three centuries afterwards that they had formed a language capable of expressing the sentiments of a civilized people. Hence the first specimen of ancient English that Dr. Johnson considers worthy of selection, is taken from a work of King Alfred, who flourished in the 9th century. In this work there are scarcely any words to be found borrowed from the Roman dialects.
The same observation applies to an extract given by Dr. Johnson from a translation of the Gospels, between the time of Alfred and that of the Norman Conquest; on comparing which with Wickliffe's version, about four hundred years later, we find differences in rendering the same passages, indicating a further adoption of words from the Latin; such as maundimentis and justi-fyingis, in the version of 1380, for bebodum and rihtwisnessum, (that is, biddings and righteousnesses) in that of the 1Oth century; as also juste for rihtwise, that is, righteous, or going in right ways. In the authorized version of the 17th
LECTURE I. 5
century, the words are " commandments and ordinances," and " righteous," (Luke i. 6), shewing very little alteration since the 14th century. Again, at the 10th verse of the same chapter, where it was, in the version of the 10th century, the werod (i. e. male population) of the folkes, we find the Latin-derived words, " multitude of the people," alike in the version of the fourteenth and in that of the seventeenth century.
It appears strange that, after the Romans had ruled over Britain for above four centuries, they should have left little or no trace of their language in the island; or if they did, it was soon lost, when the vast majority of the inhabitants were extirpated by the Saxons, whom the Britons invited over to help them against the Picts. However this may have been, it is certain that the only remains of Latin-derived words, which can be traced to the time of the Romans, are to be found in proper names of places; of which the clearest and most numerous are those which bear testimony to the warlike character of the people, and which betoken the military sway that they maintained over the subdued inhabitants of the island. All names of places terminating in chester, caster, or cester, (as in Manchester, Lancaster, and Leicester), and they are numerous, indicate the site of Roman encampments—castra signifying a camp. It will be found that there are upwards of a score
of such names amongst, those of counties and
6
LECTURE I.
towns in England. Of similar derivation are places ending in coln, (as Lincoln), indicating the locality of a Roman colony; also with the word pons (pontis), the Latin for a bridge, as Ponte-fract, which means the broken bridge, contracted to Pomfret; likewise with portus, a gate, and also a port, as in Stockport, Gosport, &c.; to which are to be added those in which street is introduced, from the Latin strata, as in Watling-Street and Stretton ; as also Chester-le-street, the le having been doubtless introduced by the Normans ; as probably was the last syllable of Ponte-fract, where they may have found the Roman bridge in a dilapidated condition. In Ireland, which was not invaded by the Romans, or perhaps known to them, we find no names of places with the above Latin-derived words incorporated into them.
It is remarkable, that notwithstanding the efforts of the Normans, after the conquest, to substitute their own language for that of the subdued Saxons—such as making Norman-French the forensic language, and that of the Royal Court, and enacting laws enjoining that no other language should be taught in schools, and no petitions received by the king unless couched in the favoured tongue—yet all these proved of no avail (any more than similar measures adopted in the sixteenth century to suppress the Irish language); while, as a natural consequence of
LECTURE I. 7
penal enactments, the arbitrary prohibition of the native language of the people caused them to cling more earnestly to this, the last vestige of their former liberty.
Moreover, the descendants of the Normans who first settled in England naturally adopted, after a time, the language spoken by the majority of the people amongst whom their lot was cast. Thus the only immediate effect of the Norman Conquest on the language of the country was the introduction of a comparatively small number of words from the Norman French.* But its ultimate effect upon the character of the language was considerable; as it,led to the greater civilization of the people, and prepared the way for a gradual improvement of the language, as the result of education and refinement of manners consequent upon increased intercourse with the Continent.
It was not, however, until three centuries after the Conquest that the English language was enriched by the general use and application, if not the first introduction, of the Provencal, by the famous Geoffrey Chaucer, who effected a great improvement in the language; although some condemn him as having " brought in foreign words by the cart load." It has been well observed, however, that it should be borne in mind,
* See English Roots, as above, pp. 10-13. Third Edition.
8
LECTURE I.
that although Chaucer has been charged with innovation by the introduction of words derived from the French, yet, as he wrote for the people even more than for the learned and polite, it is probable that he only followed, and did not go beyond the demand of the time and the progress of the language. He is, however, the first writer who has embodied in his imperishable works the exotic words introduced about that period.
Dr. Johnson refers to Sir John Gower as the first of our authors that can properly be said to have written English ; Gower describes Chaucer as his disciple, and hence he may be considered the Father of our poetry.
About a century after Chaucer, flourished Sir Thomas More, the learned and amiable, but unfortunate, Lord Chancellor to Henry VIII. In his time our language was in a great degree formed and settled ; and it appears from Ben Johnson that More's works were, in his day, considered as models of pure and elegant style. In his writings, whether prose or verse, it will be found that, while the familiar and colloquial part of the English language had undergone very little change, the number of words borrowed from the Latin had greatly increased, where the subject treated of was less familiar and the style employed less colloquial. This difference, which exists to the present time, appears in a remarkable manner, on a comparison between two bal-
LECTURE I. 9
lads of this author, as given in Dr. Johnson's " Historical Sketch of the English Language." The first is entitled, A merry jest how a serjeant (at law) would learne to playe the freer (friar); and it is almost exclusively in words derived from the Saxon. The second is, A rureful lamentation of the deth of Quene Elisabeth, Mother to King Henry the eight; 1503. This monody, being of a more solemn and dignified character, abounds in words of Latin derivation; such as "confidence," uprosperity," " concord," " immortal," " infinite," "blandishing," " comfort," " fortunate," and many others, not to be found in the " Merry Jest," but of frequent recurrence in the " Lamentacion."
It has been well observed, by the Professor of English Literature in one of the Queen's Colleges in Ireland, that " out of the practice of borrowing words from the French, there grew another of fabricating similar words directly from the Latin, the great source of the French. In this way many words of Latin formation found their way into the English which the French had never possessed, but which were all constructed, nevertheless, upon the model of those that had been received through the medium of that language. Thus, for example, every such word formed from a Latin substantive in tio was made to end in tion, and every one formed from a Latin substantive in itas in ity, (after the French ite.)"
10
LECTURE I.
The same learned author further remarks, that, " although many of the words thus transplanted from the Latin and French never effected a cohesion with the soil of the language, and some perhaps never have been used except by the writer who introduced them, many took firm root, and they now constitute a large and indispensable portion of our national speech."*
The introduction, for the most part, of words borrowed from the classical languages, was coeval with the revival of learning in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; when not only learned men, but ladies and princesses, read and wrote in Latin with ease and elegance. And it is not a little remarkable, that, with the taste for "the classics" in literature, as the dead languages were called, (probably because they constituted the study of the highest classes in schools,) a disrelish for the Gothic in architecture began to prevail. And as with respect to literature in a subsequent age, a pedantic or aureate style, affecting Latin-derived words to the depreciation of purer English, came into vogue,+—so in the fine arts there
• See " Outlines of the History of the English Language." By G. L Craik. Second Edition, p. 100.
+ The pedantic and excessive employment of such terms, by the Scottish versifiers of so early period as the fifteenth century, is objected to by Campbell (in his Essay on English Poetry); the generality of whom, he observes, u when they meant to be most eloquent, tore up words from the Latin, which never took root in the language, like
LECTURE I.
11
arose a desire to adopt the classical in preference to the Gothic; not, however, the pure taste of ancient Greece, but a heavy and fantastic style, incumbered with ornamentation of a debased and incongruous character.
In both cases, I allude only to the abuse, by exaggeration, of the style adverted to. As the severe and chaste Grecian Architecture in its classic simplicity is to be admired, although not to the depreciation of the Gothic, as more especially suited to ecclesiastical edifices, so simple Anglo-Saxon words are to be valued, but not to the rejection of those that have been derived from Latin directly, or secondarily through the French; nor of those which have been borrowed either directly from the Greek, or from that comprehensive and expressive language through the Latin.
Of late years the revival of Gothic Architecture has been contemporaneous with the return by many writers to the simplicity of the Anglo-Saxon in style ; and this no doubt has been an improvement. At the same time, as I think that it would be a mistake to adopt the Mediaeval style of architecture, to the entire rejection of the Grecian or Italian, perhaps better suited to domestic and secular as distinguished from eccle-
children making a mock garden with flowers and branches stuck in the ground, which speedily wither."
12
LECTURE I.
siastical buildings; even so it would be objectionable to revert to the simple Anglo-Saxon in literature, to the exclusion of words derived from the classics.
The first attempt at a revival of the Gothic in architecture in the last century was made by Horace Walpole, in the erection of his pseudo-Gothic villa at Twickenham, to which he gave the very inappropriate name of Strawberry-Hill. At the same period, which appears to have been too early for the introduction of the Gothic, flourished that Goliath of literature, Dr. Samuel Johnson, who carried the adoption of Latin-derived words to such an excess as to render his style ponderous and turgid. It is also remarkable, that in dress, in furniture, in equipage, and in manners, the formal and heavy style prevailed which characterized the architecture and literature of the day.
On the other hand, Swift resisted the new style of writing; and amongst English authors of the period, he is the most remarkable for the use of words derived from Saxon, almost to the entire exclusion of those borrowed from Latin; which was the more remarkable in Ireland, where the Anglo-Saxon is less in use. His theory was that no words should ever be allowed to become obsolete; and hence, even allowing the introduction of new words, he would have retained and preferred all that was of Anglo-Saxon origin. Other writers of, the last century were distin-
LECTURE I. 13
guished for the use of words of classical origin, though not to the same extent with Dr. Johnson. For example, the historians Hume and Gibbon, also Pope, Steele, Addison, and Dryden.
In our own day, with the recent revival of Mediaeval architecture, there has of late arisen a remarkable admiration of Saxon English. To this, as I have said, I am far from objecting, if only it be carried out in moderation, and not adopted to the exclusion of words borrowed from the classical languages ; and in my former work, already referred to, I have endeavoured to point out the peculiar advantages and beauties of the Anglo-Saxon element in our language. But as, notwithstanding the present taste for the Gothic, many eminent architects and other competent judges still adhere to the classical style; so while some writers, such as the late Rev. Julius Hare, have evinced what may be accomplished through the Saxon, other able writers of our own day have extensively employed words borrowed from the Latin; while they have at the same time been distinguished for simplicity and clearness, contrasting most favourably with the laboured and often pedantic style of the writers of the last century. Amongst these may be cited the late Lord Macaulay and the present Archbishop of Dublin (Dr. Whately), than whom no greater masters of the English language have adorned the present or any former age.
14
LECTURE I.
Having made these introductory observations, I now proceed to the more immediate subject of the series of Lectures that I have undertaken; which is, to point out the extent to which the English language has had incorporated into it, from time to time, words derived from Latin roots, which I call exotics or foreign, in contradistinction to the Anglo-Saxon, which may, comparatively speaking, be considered indigenous to the soil of the language of Great Britain.
In carrying out this design, I purpose taking in order words derived from Latin verbs, nouns, and adjectives, successively. In the first place, however, it will be necessary to enumerate the several Latin prepositions, which are used as prefixes, in the composition of English words derived from that language ; with a view to explain their meanings in the original, and to point out the way in which they are applied, and what signification they are intended to convey, when used as prefixes in English. I am aware that in this there will be nothing new to many whom I address, as being acquainted with the useful Dictionary of Professor Sullivan; but yet a reference to those prepositions is necessary as an introduction to the subject of these Lectures; and a due consideration of the prefixes, which are so closely connected with the composition of Latin-derived words in the English tongue, is essential to a correct understanding of this part of our language.
LECTURE I. 15
There are twenty-six Latin prepositions thus employed, more or less, in the composition of English words adopted from that language, each of which I proceed to notice and explain.
Ab is frequently thus employed, signifying from, as " abduct," to carry from. It is sometimes found written abs, as in "abstract," to draw from; and sometimes a only, as in " avert," to turn from.
AD, that is, to, is often changed to ac, where euphony requires it, for example, when preceding the letters c and q, as " accommodate/' " acquire ;" and sometimes it is at, as in " attract," to draw toward, and as] as in " assist," to stand to, that is, to help; but more usually it remains ad, as in " advent," a coming to.
Ante signifies before, as in the word "antecedent," and is to be distinguished from anti, a Greek preposition signifying against, as " antipathy," a feeling against another.
Bis (or bi) signifies two, in composition, as " bisect," to cut in two; " biped," a two-footed animal.
Circum is about or around, as "circumspection," looking about one; and sometimes the final letter is dropped, as in " circulate," to carry round.
Contra is against, as " contradict," to speak against, or in opposition to. In some words, especially those that have come to us through the
16
LECTURE I.
French, this prefix is written counter, as in " countermand," to give an order opposed to the former.
Cum is a Latin preposition signifying with, and in the composition of English words it is changed to con or CO; as " conduce," to lead with, " cooperate," to work together with,
De signifies down, from, or of; as "descend," to come down, "depart," to part from, " describe," to write of or concerning.
Dis (or di) means apart, as " dissever," to part asunder; "diverge," to turn away from. It is also used in a negative sense, as " displease," not to please.
E or ex, is out of; as " egress," going out of; " exclude," to shut out.
Extra is beyond, as " extraordinary," beyond the common.
In, when prefixed to a verb, has its proper signification, meaning in or into, as " induct," to lead into, and sometimes it is im, as " import," to carry in; but when prefixed to an adjective, it is used negatively, as " infirm," not firm, that is, weak. Before r this preposition is changed to ir, as " irregular;" before l it is il, as " illogical;" and before some other consonants it is changed to im, as " impossible;" and in a few cases it is ig, as " ignoble." In is also frequently changed to un, in English words, as " undutiful;" and it is sometimes en, as " enclosure," " envelope," &c.
LECTURE I. 17
Many words are uncertainly written with in or en, as " inclose" or " enclose;" and in many cases en is written em, for more easy pronunciation, as in "employ;" but where this is the case, such words have, for the most part, come to us through the French. The prefixes em and en are used augmentatively, and are frequently written im and in ; thus we have " embark," or " imbark," " enchant," or " inchant." We have also im or in, as likewise un, used negatively, as " improbable, " inarticulate, "unable." Dr. Richardson remarks that " the latter (the negatives) are never written with e, and that it might be a means of avoiding uncertainty and confusion, if the augmentatives were always written with e"
Inter is between; as "intervene," to come between.
Intro means to within, as " introduce," which conveys more than to bring in, implying a bringing within to a person or place.
Juxta is nigh to, as "juxta-position," being placed near to.
Ob signifies against, in the way of; as " object," to cast against; "obvious," lying in the way, and hence evident or manifest- This prefix is also used to increase the signification, as "obdure," to harden greatly.
Per, through, is of frequent occurrence, as "pervade," to go through. It also signifies thoroughly; and that which is so accomplished is
18
LECTURE I.
said to be "perfect," that is, fully done. We also have it in the sense of by, as " perhaps" or "perchance," that is, by chance. But this will be found in the case of adverbs only, and is more commonly prefixed, in this sense, to words of Anglo-Saxon origin, or to those which have come to us through the French, as " peradventure."
Post is after, and is often found as a prefix to English words derived from Latin, as "postpone," to place after.
PRÆ, before, is in composition- usually written pre, and is of frequent use, as " precede," to go before. To " prevent" also means to go before, and as this may be done with two different objects in view, namely, to hinder another's progress, or to lead one on, so the word may be found used in the two opposite senses ; it is, however, restricted to the sense of obstruction in modern writing and speaking. This is one of many instances in which we may find that words have in process of time changed their application or meaning.
Pro is used in composition in English to signify forth, rather than simply from. It implies a going forward, as in " proceed," "progress." This prefix is also used to describe for, meaning in favour of, as we speak of the "pros and cons" in any case; and it is also employed to denote for, in the sense of a substitute, instead of, as a " proconsul," &c
LECTURE I. 19
Re, as a prefix, signifies again or back, as in " return," to turn again, "recall," to call back.
Retro is backwards; hence we have " retrograde," to go backwards, and " retrospect," to look back upon; and others.
Se means aside, as in "seclude," to shut up apart, and "secede," to go aside.
Sub signifies under, beneath; and there are many words with this prefix in English verbs and nouns derived from Latin. Thus we have "subject," to throw under. To " subscribe " means literally to write under, and "subscription" is that which is under-written. These words have come to be commonly applied to giving of alms, and to the sums contributed; but the original meaning of a " subscriber " is one who writes his name beneath, and the " subscription" is that which is so underwritten. In the case of charitable contributions, it means that the persons whose names are given below promise to give the sums for which their names are written beneath. The " Subscribers at Lloyds' " mean the " underwriters" who sign the marine insurance policies.
Subter, of similar signification with sub, is usually applied as a prefix to nouns and adjectives, as " subterfuge," a covert flight, and " subterranean," beneath the earth.
Super, meaning over or above, is used to indicate " superiority," which word itself illustrates the meaning of this prefix. The " superstructure"
20
LECTURE I.
is that which is built over or upon the foundation; and a " supervisor" is an overlooker.
Trans means across or beyond, from one side to another. A " transfer" of land, of money in the funds, or of any commodity, is the carrying of it from one person to another. To " transport" is to carry one across or beyond the seas; and when a person is said to be " transported " with joy, it means that he is carried away by his feelings beyond all bounds.
There are a few Latin adverbs used as prefixes in English words, which it may be well to notice in this place.
Bene is well, and male ill. Hence we have "beneficent" and "benevolent," well-doing and well-wishing; and "malevolent," of a bad disposition, or wishing ill; likewise "benediction," a blessing, and " malediction," a curse; meaning speaking well and speaking ill.
Prope is near; whence we have "propinquity."
From satis, enough, we have "satisfy," "satisfaction;" and "insatiable," that cannot be satisfied.
Semi is, in composition, half, as "semicircle;" and DEMI, of like signification, as " demigod." These two terms are united to describe a very short note in music—a demi-semi quaver.
Simul is at the same time, as in "simultaneous;" and instanter is at the same moment, whence we have " instantaneously "
LECTURE I. 21
Before concluding this Lecture, or entering upon the general subject of Latin-derived words in the English language, I take the opportunity of first calling attention to the circumstance, that all terms relating to Grammar are derived from the Latin.
The names of the several parts of speech are so derived. The article means a small part or portion, and is of Latin origin. The noun and the substantive are the name and the substance of the thing indicated, both words being from the Latin. The adjective means that which is thrown or added to the noun, to point out its quality. The pronoun is used instead of the noun; and the different kinds of pronouns are described by Latin-derived terms; the personal, belonging to the person; relative, relating to; interrogative, asking a question; and demonstrative, pointing out. The verb means the word ; by which is described the principal word in the sentence. The adverb is that which is added, not to the " verb" in the grammatical sense, but to the word which it is used to qualify. The preposition is placed before the noun or pronoun; derived from two Latin words, signifying placed before. The conjunction is used to connect words, or to conjoin them, as the name imports. Lastly, the interjection is thrown between the parts of a sentence, to express one's feelings ; being compounded of two Latin words, meaning
22
LECTURE I.
thrown between. Of the interjection, Home Tooke speaks very disparagingly, considering it so far from being properly a " part of speech," that he designates it " the brutish and inarticulate interjection, which has nothing to do with speech, and is only the miserable refuge of the speechless." In proof of this, he insists that " the dominion of speech is founded on the downfall of interjections. Without the artful contrivances of language," he observes, " mankind could have nothing but interjections with which to communicate, orally, any of their feelings." And he proceeds to shew that " voluntary interjections are only employed when the suddenness or vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to their natural state, and makes them, for the moment, forget the use of speech:" while in books they are only to be found in " rhetoric and poetry, in novels, plays, and romances;" and never occur " in books of civil institutions, in history, or in any treatise on useful arts or sciences."*
But not only are the several parts of speech derived from the Latin, but all the terms applied to them, in their declension or conjugation, may be traced to the same origin. Thus the numbers and genders of nouns and pronouns, as well as those terms themselves, will be found to be
* Diversions of Purley; as quoted in English Roots and the Derivation of Words from the Anglo-Saxon. Third Edition, p. 48.
LECTURE I. 23
derived from this source. The singular and plural, as well as the masculine, feminine, and neuter (or neither) are all from Latin. In like manner, with reference to the cases of nouns and pronouns. The nominative is that which simply implies the name of the person or thing; the possessive, as it is commonly called in English, is the case that designates possession. This case in the Latin Grammar is called the genitive, as, among other relations, signifying one begotten, as, the father of a son, or a son's father; or of one begetting, as, the son of the father, or the father's son. The dative is, in Latin, the case that signifies the person to whom anything is given, from the verb do, I give. The accusative, or, in English Grammar, the objective, signifies the relation of the noun or pronoun on which the action or object implied in the word terminates. The vocative is the case of calling, from voco, I call, from which we have such words as " vocation," " avocation," &c. The ablative designates the case which signifies the person or thing from which something is taken away; compounded of a&, from, and latus, the past participle of the irregular verb, fero, I bring or carry. Of the six Latin cases, we have, however, only three in English, namely, the nominative, possessive, and objective.
All the moods and tenses of verbs, in English, are likewise of Latin origin. The indicative is
24
LECTURE I.
that which expresses simply affirmaton or indi-cation, derived from indico, compounded of in and dico, I say. The subjunctive means that which is joined to or under something else, namely, depending on it; and the mood thus designated, from sub under and junctus joined, is that which expresses the same intention as the indicative, not absolutely, however, but upon some condition, from which it is, in English Grammar, called the conditional mood, a word also derived from the Latin. The imperative is used to express a command, from the Latin impero, I command, from whence we have "emperor" and " imperious." The infinitive is that mood which is expressed without reference to time or person, and neither absolutely or conditionally; the word by which it is designated signifying without limit, from in, used negatively, and finis, the end. The potential mood, seldom noticed in modern English Grammars, denotes the power or possibility of performing any action, and is expressed by the auxiliaries may or can. It takes its name from the Latin potens, able or powerful.
It is now usual to describe verbs in English as having only two simple tenses, the present and the past, both named from Latin words adopted into the English language. But Murray has several others, as the imperfect, or unfinished ; the perfect, or completed; the pluperfect, or more fully completed; and the future, that which
LECTURE I. 25
is yet to come to pass;—all deriving their names from the Latin. The active and passive voices are likewise named from Latin words adopted into the English language. The same observation applies to the degrees of comparison in adjectives; the positive, that which is simply set forth, or laid down, from positus, placed; the comparative, that which is compared with another, from comparo, or comparare, to compare; and the superlative, that which is carried above or beyond all others, from super, above, and latus, borne or carried.
To the foregoing may be added the four great divisions (itself a Latin-derived term) of Grammar, which, however, were like the word " grammar" itself originally derived by the Romans from the Greek. Orthography means the correct method of writing, that is, spelling the language, from two Greek words, meaning correct writing. Etymology relates to the true origin and meaning of words, from two Greek words signifying true and a word. Syntax treats of the orderly connection and construction of words in a sentence; derived also from two Greek terms indicating an orderly arrangement. Lastly, prosody, which treats of the quantity or accent of words, and the proper manner of speaking and reading, and of the different kinds of verse, is so called from two Greek words signifying a song set forth in order; and from the same noun we have an ode, a term by which a piece of poetry is designated.
26
LECTURE I.
In my next Lecture I purpose commencing with words compounded of Latin verbs, with one or other of the prepositions which I have adverted to prefixed; after which I shall proceed to words derived from Latin nouns and adjectives.
In explaining, in the present Lecture, the meaning of the several Latin prepositions, used as prefixes in the composition of English words, and in illustrating their application and signification in composition, I have unavoidably anticipated, in some instances, the derivations of words derived from Latin verbs and nouns in connection with these prepositions; but I have purposely abstained from any particular explanation of such words, which I reserve for future Lectures,
LECTURE II.
W
ORDS
FORMED FROM LATIN VERBS.
The subject of this lecture is the derivation of words in the English language from Latin verbs, which however, will extend to several lectures.
These are usually formed from the present tense of the indicative mood, with a Latin preposition prefixed; and from the supine, or, as it will be more commonly understood, from the past participle of verbs, with a similar prefix. From the former combination, we usually have English verbs; and from the latter, nouns substantive. These are not the only ways in which verbs and nouns are taken from the Latin, and formed into English words; but, as I have remarked, they are the most common; and it is to such, that, in these lectures, I purpose chiefly to direct your attention.
It was with this end in view, that I enumerated, in my first lecture, the several prepositions from the Latin which have been employed as prefixes in the composition of English words, and explained
28
LECTURE II.
their meanings when so applied. I shall now proceed, alphabetically, in like manner to enumerate and explain the principal Latin verbs that have been introduced into our language, in the composition of verbs or nouns, with the help of those prepositions.
In future lectures I hope to take up Latin substantives and adjectives in a similar manner, and for a like purpose.
Ago is a Latin verb; and in the present tense of the indicative mood is translated I do or act. The supine is actum, which is rendered to act or do. I shall, however, give the English in a general way, by the infinitive mood, instead of the indicative; and the past participle, which in this instance is actus acted, instead of the supine, actum, a part of the verb not known in the English grammar.
From ago we have some words in common use, as "agent;" and " cogent," from co for con prefixed, signifying not only doing an act, but as doing it forcibly, as if by combination of forces acting together; we have also " exigence," with the prefix ex, to describe what is enforced, driven out. "Vigour" may imply vi agere, to act with force.
From the frequentative of this verb, agito, we have " agitate, "cogitate," &c. From the participle actus, we have "action" and "actuate;" also " enact" to put into action; " exact" to extort or drive out from; " inactive," the prefix in having
LECTURE II. 29
here the force of a negative; and "overact," the prefix being English, perhaps derived from the Greek preposition uper. "Reaction" is that which acts bach again; and "transaction" is that which is carried on between two or more persons, acting, as it were, across from one to the other; or "transact" may mean to do through, or thoroughly. "Outrage" means violence, from ultra beyond, and ago, to act. This word comes through the French outre, derived from ultra.
The Latin verb amo, to love, is to be found in English words; as " amiable," loveable or to be loved, and its derivatives. Through the French we have " enamour," to make fond ; as also " amateur," used to describe a non-professional artist who is influenced only by love for the art
From audio, to hear, we have " audible," that may be heard, and its opposite " inaudible," The proper meaning of "audience" is a hearing;* audiens being the present active participle of this verb. Although the word is still used in this sense, as when a Sovereign is said to grant an audience to a subject, yet it is now more commonly applied to designate the people who are hearers of what is spoken. From the past participle auditus, heard, we have an "auditor," applied to a person who "audits," that is, lite-
* "And they gave him audience unto this,word."—Acts xxii. 22. "Then follow me, and give me audience, friends."—Shakspeare: Julius Caesar, Act iii. Scene 2.
30
LECTURE II.
rally, hears the final account of a money transaction. "Auditory" is equivalent to "audience," as now generally understood. "Obedience" means a diligent and attentive hearing, the prefix ob being used augmentatively.
Augeo, to increase, gives us the verb "augment,'1 of the same signification, and its noun, "augmentation," or increase. From the participle auctus, we have an " auction," where the price goes on increasing; and an " author," (from the Latin noun auctor), being one who produces a work, and thus increases the number of our books. From the same root we have " authorize" and "authority," implying increased power.
Bibo, to drink, gives us " bibulous," given to drink, and a wine-"bibber;" also a "bib," being an apron put on a child when drinking. Hence likewise we have "imbibe," literally to drink in; and applied metaphorically to the mind.
Cado, to fall, supplies us with several well-known words. The " cadence" of verse or song means the proper falling of the voice. Milton uses the word to describe the setting or going down of the sun. " Cadent" occurs as an adjective in Shakspeare.* An "accident" is that
* " Let it stamp wrinkles in her brow of youth, With cadent tears fret channels in her cheeks."
Lear, Act i. Scene 4.
LECTURE II. 31
which befalls one, or falls to one's lot; the preposition ad being as a prefix changed to ac before c, as observed in my former lecture. To "coincide" is to fall into or upon the same point. "Decay" means a falling off from ; and "decadence" is a falling off to ruin. Trees that are not evergreen are called "deciduous," from the falling off of their leaves in autumn. An "incident" is that which falls or lights upon one; and those expenses which are not expected as regularly occurring are called "incidental," to signify that they fall upon one casually, and were not intended or contemplated at first. The west is called the " occident," from the apparent falling or declining of the sun in that quarter of the heavens, as the east is called the "orient" from its rising, (from orior to rise,) but both these words are rather French than Latin. From the participle casus, we have also some words derived; as "case," the condition in which anything may befal or happen to be ; and "casually," as it fell out. A "casuist" is one skilled in cases of conscience. An "occasion" is the time or circumstance in or at which any thing falls out, the prefix oc for ob having the effect of increasing the signification. Ob is also used to mean before one's face, and "occasion" indicates what comes in one's way. Again, this prefix sometimes signifies opposition to, against; and we may find " occasion" used in the sense of objection or accusation, in the
32
LECTURE II.
authorized version of the Scriptures of the 17th century.*
Another Latin verb, somewhat similar in the sound of its derivatives, CÆdo, to cut or kill, supplies many English words. It is to be observed, however, that all words derived from cado have the i short, as "incident," but all from cœdo have that letter long, as for example "decide," which signifies to cut off from; and hence it is used to denote a "decision" by which a dispute is "decisively" cut short. From the indicative and infinitive we have many words meaning murder or killing, as " fratricide," killing a brother; "homicide," killing a man, (now used to distinguish it from wilful murder, or manslaughter) ; "infanticide," or child murder; " matricide," or the killing of one's mother; " parricide," which is applied not only to the murder of a man's father, but of any one in the relation of, or to be revered as, a parent, such as one's sovereign.† This latter, however, has also its proper name of " regicide," the killing of a king. A "suicide" is one who takes his own life. From the participle of this verb, CÆSUS, we have " concise," meaning short, or being cut into
* " That he may seek occasion against us."—Gen. xliii. 18.
" Behold he seeketh occasions against me."—Job, xxxiii. 10.† † " Marat was always bloody, now he's base ; And has so far in usurpation gone, He will by parricide secure the throne."—Dryden.
LECTURE II. 33
small portions; the word is well applied to describe a style of writing,* the opposite to diffuse, and one that I would recommend to your adoption. The "excise" is a tax which cuts off or out of the property of those subjected to it "Excision" is a cutting off, or ruin. " Incision " is a wound inflicted with a sharp instrument, and is usually applied to wounds made by a surgeon cutting into the flesh. " Indecision" is the negative of decision, already adverted to. " Precise" means exact or accurate and formal, as conveying the idea of having the needless parts, or those most prominent and foremost, cut off.
Candeo is to shine, to be white, to inflame. Hence we have " candid," meaning clear and open; and " candour" which can bear the light, and itself shines brightly; both words being used in a metaphorical sense. Hence also " candles" that give light, and a "chandler" who makes them. u Incense" is so called, as being burned; and an " incendiary" is one who wilfully sets houses or goods on fire; the term is also well applied to violent political demagogues, whose object it is to inflame men's minds. " Candidates" are so called, as having, amongst the ancient Romans, worn a white toga emblematical of purity.
* "The concise style, which expresseth not enough, but leaves somewhat to be understood."—Ben Johnson's Discoveries
34
LECTURE II.
From cano, to sing, and its participle cantus sung, we have " chant," a religious song; "chan-tor," the head of a choir; and "chantry," the place where the singers chanted. The low word " cant" seems to have been applied to the " chant" or whining tone of voice assumed by beggars, with intent to coax, wheedle or cajole, and so came to describe the manner of speech of any deceivers or impostors, as street beggars generally are. The cock in the poultry yard is called " chanticleer," being the bird that chants clearly* " Incantations" are magical songs; and a " precentor," in old documents often called " chantor," was the superintendent, if not leader, of the choir of singers. The verb to " enchant," and its derivatives " enchanter," " enchantment," &c, are also to be traced to the same root. " Accent" means to sing to, or in unison with, certain rules of pronunciation, and is applied to reading and speaking as well as to singing. A " descant" meant a variation in music—a change from the plain song. This word is also more commonly applied in the sense of treating or discoursing upon the various divisions of any subject. Although a person " recanting" what has been said or done, does not sing his " recantation," any more than the man who discourses on a particular subject sings his
* "The cock's shrill clarion, and the echoing horn."
Gray's Elegy.
LECTURE II. 35
" descant," yet the words equally refer to a song or " chant." To " recant" is to retract, recall, or call back, what one had before said.*
Capio, to take, with its participle captus, taken, has become the foundation of many words bor. rowed from the Latin into English. In composi tion, these words are often changed to cipio and ceptus, as we shall presently see. Hence we have " capable," able to take or hold, with its derivative " capability," and the opposite " incapable;" also " capacious," large, that can take or hold much; " captious," peevish, disposed to take objections, to take up crotchets. A " captive" is a person taken or "captured" in war; and a " caitiff" was originally a contraction of this word. To "captivate" is to take "captive," or, metaphor- rically, to take by force of charms. " Captor" is the taker, and " capture" the taking of a prize. To " accept" is to take to oneself, to receive; that which is worthy of being received is "acceptable;" and the " acceptation" of words means the signi fication in which they are to be taken or received. When a person " accepts" or gives his " acceptance" to the draft of another, he takes upon himself the responsibility of paying the bill when it becomes
due. I have observed that the Latin preposition ante, meaning before, is to be distinguished from
* " . . . . How soon would ease recant
Vows made in pain, as violent and void."—Milton.
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LECTURE II.
the Greek anti, signifying against; but the former is sometimes in the composition of English words, changed to anti. Thus we have " anticipate," to take before hand, and its derivative " anticipation." To " conceive" and " deceive" come from the same verb, but rather through the French than directly. The former used formerly to be " conceit," as a verb ;* it is now only employed as a noun. It signifies to take or hold within, and is applied metaphorically to the mind or understanding; and we speak of an opinion being " inconceivable," when we cannot receive it into our mind. A " conceited" person is one full of his own thoughts or " conceits," which latter word, though formerly referring to any " conception" of the mind, or opinion of another,† is now only applied to mere fancies, or vain and high thoughts of self. " Conceitless,"† for foolish, is to be found in Shakspeare. " Conception" and " deception" come directly from the Latin, captus being, as I have observed, often
* " My credit now stands on such slippery ground, That one of two bad ways you must conceit me, Either a coward or a flatterer."
Shakspeare: Julius Cæsar, Act iii. scene 1. † " There's some conceit or other, likes him well, When he bids good-morrow with such spirit."
Shakspeare: Richard HI. " I shall not fail t' approve the fair conceit
The king hath of you."—Shakspeare: Henry VIII. † " Thinkest thou, I am so shallow, so conceitless,
To be seduced by thy flattery ?"— Two Gent. of Ver. Act. iv. s. 2.
LECTURE II. 37
changed to ceptus in composition. To "except" is to take out of or from, hence "exception." The word "except" is also used as a preposition, meaning unless.* "Inception" is taking in (as a commencement); "intercept" is to take between, and thus to obstruct or stop. "Participate" is take a part in; the "participle" is a part of speech participating in the qualities both of a verb and adjective. "Perception" is the art of taking through, that is, "perceiving;" "perceptible" is that which can be "perceived," and with the negative prefix in changed to im, it is " imperceptible." A physician's "recipe" is so called because it consists of a written direction in Latin to the apothecary, to make up a mixture, commencing with the word Recipe, the imperative mood, take thou. A "reception" is a receiving of persons, and a "receptacle" is a place where goods are received or taken in. The name of a receipt for making a pudding, &c. is of the same origin as the doctor's recipe, the first word being u take" so and so. Here I may remark, although anticipating another set of words, that the other name for recipe or receipt in this sense is "prescription", "because it prescribes," or
* Shakspeare in two lines uses " except" in different senses, playing upon the word:
" Sweet, except not any; Except thou wilt except against my love."
Two Gentlemen of Verona, Act ii.
38
LECTURE II.
writes before, that is, puts a writing before one as a rule or direction. Lastly, from capio, as changed to cepio, we have " susceptible," compounded of sub and cepio, capable of admitting, subject to taking an impression.*
The Latin verb caveo, to beware, or rather its participle cautus, avoided, supplies some words in our language; as to " caution," that is to tell another to be watchful; " cautious" and " incautious;" also taking "precaution," or being on one's guard beforehand. Dr. Richardson quotes Varro as giving the derivation of the Latin word itself. He says caveo is from cavus, a cave; because men, in early ages, were said CAVERE,(to be cautious against) dangers, heat, cold, or foes, when they betook themselves to caves or caverns, and protected themselves there.
From cÆdo, to go, to yield, and the participle of the same verb, cessus, we have many words adopted into the English language. To " cede " is to give up or yield; " cession" is a giving up, and " cessation" is stopping, or giving up of any course, which man " ceases" to pursue. To " accede" is to yield to a proposal made. " Access" is a going to, and " accessible" easy of approach. An " accessory" means an accomplice, one who, whether before or after the fact or deed done, is
* See Sullivan's Dictionary; (Introduction, p. lxiv. &c.) in which the Latin and Greek roots of words in English are enumerated.
LECTURE II. 39
" accessary" to it, and is aiding and abetting the person who does it; he yields his assent to the deed, and this is giving his " accession" to it. The " antecedent" is that which goes before. To " concede" is to comply with, and " concession" is the yielding of a point; that is, going along with another. To " exceed" is to go beyond, or out of bounds, and the result is " excess," and the proceeding is " excessively" bad. To " intercede" is to go between, with a view to reconciliation, to mediate; and from the participle we have the noun " intercession." To " precede" is to go before; " precedence" is the right of going be fore, and a " precedent" is an example, having gone before. To " proceed" is to go forth or for ward; and the noun " procession," from the par ticiple, means a going forward. A " process" is something going forward, as in a court of law, &c: a " procedure" is of similar signification. To " recede" is to go back; and a " recess" is that which goes back, as a place of concealment ; the word is also used to describe going back, a retire ment from business—as we speak of a Parliamen tary " recess." A " seceder" is one who " secedes" or goes apart from. To " succeed," in its pri-
mary meaning, is simply to go under or beneath; hence it means to follow after; and in the same sense we have "succession" and " successive." But the word is also applied in the sense of attain ing one's object- It then means to be " suc-
40
LECTURE II.
cessful," that is, to have " success," which is that which is come to, or attained. This word was originally applicable to a good or bad end; but being now limited to good fortune, it has become unnecessary to specify that the result is good; and if it be not, we pronounce the efforts made to attain it " unsuccessful." Formerly, however, it was necessary to specify that it was " good success."* From the same root we have " decease," that is, departing from, used to describe death. A " predecessor" is one that has gone before, having the same signification as an " ancestor," a word contracted from ante-cessor; while a " successor" is one who follows after. The term " ancestor" has come to be applied only to predecessors by birth. An hereditary monarch succeeds to his ancestors, an elective, to his predecessors.
From censeo, to think, estimate, or value, and census, judged, we have " census," meaning an estimate of the number of the people. A " censor" was a Roman officer who had authority to degrade any senator, who did not worthily behave himself. Hence we have the word " censorious," to describe a disposition to detect and expose faults, and to pass severe judgment. To " censure" is to find fault with conduct deserving of blame,
* "Then thou shalt make thy way prosperous, and then thon shalt have good success."—Joshua i. 8.
LECTURE II. 41
and hence described as " censurable." In old authors to " censure" merely meant to form a judgment on any subject, and the substantive signified only an opinion so formed.
Several English words are derived from the Latin verb cerno, the original meaning of which is to sift and separate as by a sieve; and hence came to signify, to judge, to distinguish. The participle of this verb is cretus, from which also we have derived to us many English words. The words " concern" and " certain" may perhaps be traced to this root. What " concerns" one is that which,having been anxiously considered, is judged worthy of regard; and the noun " concern" indicates that which has been so adjudged. We call that " certain" which, having been well sifted and examined, is placed beyond all doubt, and is thence decided upon as firmly established. A " decree," or " decretal," is that which is deter-mined after full investigation; " discernment" implies that the truth has been arrived at by sifting the evidence, that is, " discerning" and separating truth from falsehood, and a "discerner" is one who does this honestly. " Discreet" and " discretion" also come from this verb, and in like manner convey the idea of a separating of the chaff from the wheat. Of the same meaning are " discriminate" and " discrimination." To " secrete" is to set aside or apart, and a " secret" is that which is so put apart or concealed. In
42
LECTURE II.
medical language, a "secretion" applies to the separation of the various fluids of the body. A " secretary" is one who is intrusted with the secrets of his office or employer.
Cieo, to call, to stir up, with its participle citus, called, gives us the words "cite" and " citation," also " excite," to rouse out of, and "excitement." To "recite" is, literally, to call again; and hence means to rehearse, which is a " recitation."
From clamo (clamatus) to call out, or cry, we have several words; as to "claim," meaning to demand as a right, and a " claimant," one who calls out for his rights. A man who does this unreasonably and with vehemence is said to be " clamorous." " Acclaim" and " acclamation" imply a calling out to or for another person, attributing praise to him. "Acclaim" was. formerly used as a verb, but now it is seldom employed even as a noun, except in poetry.* To " declaim" and " declamation" have reference to harangues, or violent speeches, addressed to the passions rather than to the reason, de being used to intensify the word, without implying the idea of separation usually attached to that prefix. This, however, is fully expressed by " disclaim." As to " claim" is to demand a title to anything, so
• " Back from pursuit thy pow'rs, with loud acclaim, Thee only extoll'd."— Milton's Paradise Lost
LECTURE II.
43
to " disclaim" is to deny that right. A " disclaimer" in law is a plea containing an express denial or refusal. It is a putting away, or a disavowal of a claim set up by another. To " exclaim" is to call out; and an " exclamation" is a vehement outcry. To " proclaim" any fact or opinion, is to call it out before, or in the presence of, the public at large; and a " proclamation" is that which the cryer calls out before the people. The simple meaning of " reclaim " is to call bach, to recall; and it is applied metaphorically to bringing back from an ill condition or evil courses; as unprofitable land, or a bad character, is said to be " reclaimed." It is also constructively used to signify to restore/or to recover anything that had been lost, or alienated from one's possession. The word is sometimes applied to wild animals, in the sense of bringing them from a wild to a tame or manageable state.*
Claudo, to shut, with its participle clausus, shut or closed, has supplied us with many words. A " clause" in a lease or other deed, is that which incloses or contains a full statement of a condition or covenant; and so it is applied to sentences, written or spoken, to describe such a portion of a paragraph as is to be construed together, " including" a complete sense or mean-
* ". . . . Upon his fist he bore
An eagle well reclaim'd."—Dryden's Knight's Tale.
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LECTURE II.
ing. Of the same origin are the words " close" and " closeness;" and a " closet," where goods are shut up. To " conclude" is to bring close together, to shut up together.* This word is also used in a metaphorical sense, as is the noun " conclusion," and the adjective and adverb, " conclusive" and " conclusively," to express a fixed and settled judgment, on a matter decided by bringing together the premises and drawing the inference or " conclusion" therefrom. Dr. Johnson remarks that in Shakspeare† it seems to signify silence, confinement of the thoughts ;—as in modern slang language being " shut up." We have also from this Latin verb, " disclose," that is, to " unclose," or open; to separate things that had been in close contact together. " Enclose," with its noun " enclosure," (also, and more properly " inclose" and " inclosure," as we always write " include," from the same root,) both signifying to close in, and that which is closed in on all sides or surrounded. On the other hand, we have " exclude," to shut out, or rather to thrust out of or from. " Exclusion" is the act of shutting out, and " exclusive" is debarring of participation, and is also opposed to " inclusive," as not being
• " God hath concluded them all in unbelief, that he might have mercy upon all."— Romans xi. 32.
† " Your wife Octavia, with her modest eyes And still conclusion, shall acquire an honour, Demurring upon me."—Antony and Cleopatra,
LECTURE II. 45
taken into account. To " preclude" is to shut before one, or beforehand, and means to hinder. A " recluse" is one who shuts himself up again, and " recloses" the door of his cell in order to " seclude" or shut himself apart from the world, in what is therefore called a state of " seclusion."
Clino, to bend, or lie down, gives us " clinic," a word not in general use, describing one that is confined to his bed, a bedridden person, and so said to be in a " clinical" condition. Of words better known we have from this verb, " decline" and " declension," signifying a state of bending downwards. To " decline" an invitation, or any proposal, is to bend away from it, and thus to manifest a " disinclination" to it, as " inclining" means bending towards a thing, that is, approving of it; the word " incline" is also used, literally, to describe a bending of the body,* and an " inclined plane" is a surface which gradually ascends or descends; " declivity" is applied only to that which descends. When a person leans backward, or against any support, he is said to " recline."
Colo, to till or cultivate, supplies our language with the word " colony," and its derivatives, " colonial," belonging to a colony, with " colonize," and " colonist," all having reference to the tilling or cultivating of land previously neglected.
* " With due respect my body I inclin'd,
As to some being of superior kind."—Dryden.
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LECTURE II.
\
To this root some have traced "colonel," as having been originally the governor of a colony; but it would appear rather to be from colonna, a pillar. " Cultivate" is derived from cultus; as also " culture," usually applied metaphorically to the " cultivation" of the mind.
We have a few words from concilio, to unite, in the sense of making friends. Hence " conciliate," " conciliation," and " conciliatory;" also " reconcile," to unite again; and " irreconcileable" that cannot be so united.
Credo, to believe, and its participle, credǏtus, believed, supply a few words. "Credence" is belief, and " credible," worthy of belief. " Credit" means faith or confidence being reposed in a person; and is also applied to convey the idea of a good repute, or a favourable opinion of one whose conduct we pronounce to be " creditable" to him. On the other hand, " discreditable" conduct is that which takes all credit from the person who is guilty of it. A " creditor" is one who trusts another. " Credulous" and " credulity" have come to be applied in a bad sense as implying lightness of belief, being easily deceived; but " incredulity" signifies unbelief, even when there is good ground for faith—hard to be convinced. A man's " credentials" are the letters or papers that shew his title to credit—the warrant upon which authority is claimed. An ambassador is said to be "accredited" to a foreign court when
LECTURE II. 47
he brings his " credentials" to shew that his own sovereign gives trust to him, and demands the confidence of others to be accorded to his representations and pledges. An " incredible" story is one to which we find it hard to give credit. The well-known formulary of faith is called " The Creed," from the first word of it in Latin, credo, " I believe." The opprobrious term " miscreant" comes through the French, from mis and credo, meaning a misbeliever; and of similar signification is " recreant," denoting an unbeliever, the prefix re implying that he has gone back from his profession of faith.
From creo, to create, creatus, created, we have " create," " creator," " creation" and " creature;" also " increate," " procreate," and " recreate ;" from which last word we have " recreation," meaning creating again, that is, as we say, reanimating, or giving new life to. Innocent amusements and games are a source of " re-creation " to the working man or student. " All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy," is a true proverb. The man who toils, either mentally or bodily, has need of rest and diversion from labour ; and hence such amusements are also called diversions. To " recreate"* may be
* . . . . " He hath left them you,
And to your heirs for ever; common pleasures, To walk abroad, and recreate yourselves."
Shakspeare: Julius Cæsar. Act iii. sc. 2.
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LECTURE II.
found as a verb in Shakspeare, and is not altogether obsolete. A weekly day of rest is a source of reanimation for man and beast; and independently of religious obligations, eminent medical authorities have pronounced it to be physically necessary.
Cresco, to grow, with its past participle cretus, grown, gives us several words. The form of a " crescent" is so called, because it represents the appearance of the moon when she seems to be increasing, the present participle of the verb being crescens* That which "accrues"to an industrious man of business is, the increase of income, or the benefits growing out of his exertions. " Concrete " means to grow together; and the noun denotes a mass of any matter formed by the " concretion" of several substances or particles growing or collected together. In logic, concrete terms, as distinguished from those which are called abstract, while they express the quality, also either express or imply some subject to which it belongs. A philosopher is a concrete, and philosophy the abstract term which belongs to it. Generally, however, concrete terms are adjectives, and the abstract, nouns, as white and whiteness. To " en-crease," now more commonly written " increase," means to grow, en or in augmenting the force of
* The word " crescent" is used by Shakspeare in the sense of increasing. " I have seen him in Britain; he was then of a crescent note."—Cymbeline. Act i. sc. 5. "My power's a crescent"—Antony
LECTURE II. 49
the word to which it is prefixed, being the oppo-
site to de or dis. Thus to " decrease" is to grow less.
" Increment" and " decrement" are of similar
meaning with the nouns increase and decrease. An
" excrescence" is that which grows out of; and is
applied to designate what grows out uselessly if
not injuriously. To " recruit" is another word
derived from this verb; meaning to grow back
again, or to increase more and more. Thus a
man is said to "recruit" his health, similarly to
recreating himself, by change of climate; and a
" recruiting" serjeant is one who re-increases the
number of men in the regiment by new "recruits,"
a term properly denoting men who join a regiment
to make up the deficiency in the number required,
after losses sustained. This word, as is usual with
military terms, comes to us through the French.
Cubo or cumbo, to lie down, to recline at table, gives us the word "incubation," applied to the sitting of a hen on her eggs. " Incubus" was the name given to a spirit to whom was ascribed the oppression known by the vulgar name of nightmare; and hence the term came to be applied, both literally and metaphorically, to any weight lying upon one and hindering progress. An " incumbent" means the person filling a place, reposing securely in it. " Recumbent" means reclining, or lying back upon a support. To " succumb" is to lie under, to submit. " Super-incumbent" means lying over upon.
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LECTURE II.
Curro, to run, with the participle cursus, run, is the root of several English words. From hence we have " current," a running stream or flow of water; and the word is applied as an adjective to the circulating medium; the " current" coin of the realm, or the " currency" of the land, is that which passes from hand to hand.* A " current" report is one running from one person to another; and the " current" year is that now passing— which is at present in its " course." A " curricle" is a little carriage that runs along the road. A " cursitor" is an officer in the court of Chancery, also called clerk of " course," who makes out the writs which run in the several counties. A " cursory" or superficial view implies one that is hasty, quick, and inattentive. A "course" is a race, or the ground on which the race is run. The word is likewise applied to the " course" of a river; and the " course" or line of conduct which one pursues; also to the order of succession, as " every one in his course;" and to the natural bent, as we speak of a disease taking its " course." In architecture, the word is used to describe a range of stones or bricks running the whole length of the building; and the same term is applied to the number of dishes set at once upon the table, the " courses" running one after the other. Again, it is applied to the elements of an
♦ " Shekels of silver, current money with the merchant."—Gen xxiii. 16.
LECTURE II. 51
art explained in a series, as a " course" of mathe-matics ; and we speak of a " course" of lectures running on in order. The phrase " of course," is applied to describe an empty form, called " a mere matter of course." It is also used to point out the consequence, as if by a settled rule, as things are said to happen " of course." As a verb, to " course" is to hunt with dogs running in pursuit of a hare. A " courier," equivalent to a running footman, and a " courser," applied to a swift-running horse, are borrowed from the French, but they had the word from the Latin, curro, to run. A " concourse" means a running together of people. To " concur" in any opinion implies a running together of the thoughts of two or more persons; and hence " concurrence" signifies agreement. To " discourse" is to pass, or run, from thought to thought —from the premises to the conclusion; and a " discourse" is that in which this is done ; but when this is attempted in a rambling desultory manner, the writer or speaker is said to be " discursive," that is, running away from the subject. This latter word was not originally restricted to a bad sense, but was formerly written " discoursively," and applied to what was argumentative, and passing by intermediate steps from premises to consequences. An " excursion" is a going out from one's regular habitation—taking a run. To " incur" is to run against, or become liable to penalty or danger.
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LECTURE II.
An "incursion" is an inroad or invasion. "Intercourse" means a running between, and is applied to describe a " course1' or passage between one and another—interchange, as applied to commerce or conversation. " Occur" means to run against; ob changed to oc. An "occurrence" is an incident, being that which happens to one or runs in the way, expressed by oc for 06. A " precursor" is a fore-runner, and is applied to persons or events coming before. To " recur" means to run back; and events or expedients are said to "recur" or return quickly to the mind. "Recourse" is a running back again, and is used to describe a person retreating as to a place of refuge. Thus a dishonest person often has recourse to miserable shifts and devices, while a good man may have recourse to a safe refuge in time of danger. The " recurrence" of an event is a return or repetition of it. To " succour" is to run under (the prefix suc being put for sub), as a prop is placed under to render support to that which is in a tottering condition. Hence the word is used in the sense of assistance under difficulties.
Dico, to speak, (dictus spoken) is often found in the composition of English words. Thus the style of writing or speaking is called "diction;" a " dictionary" is a word-book, a vocabulary; and the " index" of a book is that which points out the contents. The " index" finger is that used to point to any things. To " indicate" is to point out
LECTURE II. 53
by telling, from indico, derived from this root; whence also comes the term " indicative" mood. To " dictate" is to speak with confidence ; and a " dictatorial" person is one that is confident, dogmatical, who lays down his dictum, or positive saying, and expects every one to submit to his ipse dixit, that is, his mere assertion. The word " dictatorial" had reference originally to the Dic-tator, a magistrate of Rome who was invested with absolute authority. When a teacher gives a lesson in " dictation," it is that the pupil shall write out what he speaks or reads. A " benedic-tion" is giving a blessing, and a " malediction" is a curse. To " indite," formerly " endict," or draw up an " endictment," is to speak or write what the law " dictates" or directs, and to bring a charge in the " dictated" or prescribed form of words. An "indictable" offence is one that is liable to an " indictment." An " interdict" is a prohibition, a command interposed. "Jurisdic-tion" means legal authority, but the word belongs to those compounded with nouns and verbs. To " contradict," is to speak against that which another has affirmed; to speak contrary to him. To " predicate" is to speak before, to proclaim, or to affirm confidently. In logic, the " predicate" is that which is affirmed or denied; and that of which it is affirmed or denied is called the subject. Chaucer has " predication" for a preaching, and the verb to " preach" is from this root, through
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LECTURE II.
the French, meaning to proclaim the word of God. To " predict" is to foretel; and the "verdict1' means the true saying, or the sentence, of the jury who have sworn to give a true verdict. It is compounded of an adjective and a noun, and may be applied to any true saying, as when we read of crimes being condemned by the general " verdict" of humanity.
DivǏdo, to divide, and the participle, divǏsus, divided, furnish us with the words " divide" and " division," di or dis implying division, from a Greek preposition meaning twice. A" dividend" is a share, or the part allotted to one in a division. In arithmetic the " dividend" means the number given to be divided; the " divisor" is the number given by which it is to be divided; and " division" itself is the separation or dividing of a given number into the parts assigned. An "individual" signifies one separate from others of the same species, and that cannot be subdivided further—" undi-vided" in its component parts, and united into one body, person, or thing. Thus, for example, dogs may be divided into mastiffs, greyhounds, spaniels, &c., but the particular dog Tray cannot be divided further; he is an " individual."
From do, to give, and its participle datus, given, we have " date." This may not appear plain at first sight, but the origin of this well known word is similar to that of the physician's recipe; being derived from the first word of what
LECTURE II. 55
we now call the " date" of a letter. Every certificate or other document was formerly signed in full, as given under the writer's hand, at such a place on such a day. It was also usual to put this in Latin, and the first word being datum {given), the heading or subscription of the document was called the date of it. " Datum" and its plural " data" have been adopted into English, to signify any fact or propositions given or granted, in an argument. The " dative" case in grammar is that which signifies the person to whom any thing is given. A " donor" is one who gives, and a " donation" is that which is given. To " add " (ad do) is to give to; and " addition" in arithmetic is the adding of one number to another. The " addendum" is the " addition" to a book, usually called the appendix because it is appended to it. To " superadd" is to add above and beyond. An " edition" of a book is the giving out of a publication, and the " editor" is he who " edits" it, that is, superintends its publication and gives it out to the public. This word is distinguished from author; the latter being the originator of the work, the former one who only superintends or conducts the publication of another's writings. The remarks of such a conductor of the press are called " editorial." To " render" is to give back, from re for retro, and do; hence it is used in the sense of restoring, or delivering up; it also signifies to transfer, and to translate from one lan-guage into another.
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LECTURE II.
Doceo is to teach, of which the past participle is doctus, taught. From this root we have €i docile" and " docility," meaning teachable and teachableness; also " doctor," or teacher; " doctrine," that which is taught; and " doctrinal," relating to doctrine. A " document" is a writing produced in evidence to teach what is maintained or set forth; and the testimony thus provided is called " documentary" evidence.
From doleo, to be in pain, to grieve, we have some " dolorous" or " doleful," that is, melancholy and painful words. To " condole" is to mourn with another. " Condolement" is used by Shakspeare* to signify grief, though it be only in one's own heart. "Dole" as a noun means pain or grief. It is nearly obsolete, and usually found only in poetry.† This word is to be distinguished from dole, which means to divide, or a share, from the Anglo-Saxon, dælan, to deal out, or divide.‡
The Latin verb duco, to lead, and its participle ductus, led, supply many English words derived
*"..... But to persevere In obstinate condolement, is a course Of impious stubbornness."—Hamlet, Act i. sc. 2. † " Yonder they lie ; the poor old man, their father, making such pitiful dole over them, that all beholders take his part with weeping." —Shakspeare: As you like it.
" They might hope to change
Torment with ease, and soonest recompense Dole with delight."—Milton: Paradise Lost. ‡ English Roots. Third Edition, page 149.
LECTURE II. 57
therefrom. A " duke" originally meant a leader; a " dukedom" is the territory of a reigning duke; and a " ducat" is a coin issued by such, named after the ruler, similarly to our sovereign. " Ductile" means fit to be led; "abduction" is a leading away from ; while " adduce" is to lead to; and " conduce" to lead together, to bring with one, that is, to help ; and " conducive " means that which tends or leads to the promotion of the object in view. To " conduct" is to lead with, or guide, and the channel or agent in so doing is called a " conductor." A man's " conduct" signifies the manner in which he " conducts" himself, that is, how he leads his life with himself. Through the French, derived from the Latin, we have a " conduit," being a pipe for conducting anything; as also an " aqueduct" and a " viaduct," to describe the carrying of water, and of a road; but these belong to words compounded with nouns. To " deduce" is to lead or bring from; and a " deduction" is the conclusion to which one is led by the premised propositions, as that is " deduci-ble" which may be drawn out therefrom. To " deduct" is to take away from, and that so taken off is called a " deduction" from the gross amount. To " educe" is to bring out; and to " educate," is, metaphorically, to draw forth the powers of the mind. " Educational" is now in common use, but it is not to be found in Johnson's Dictionary ; it means relating to education. To
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LECTURE II.
" induce" is to lead in or on; as an " inducement" signifies a motive, that which leads one on to the performance of any act. To " induct" is also to lead in, used to express the putting one into the actual possession of an office or benefice. In logic, " induction" is when from several particular propositions we infer one general. To " introduce" is to bring to or within, as an " introduction" is thus bringing a person to another; and an " intro-ductory" chapter or lecture is that which " intro-duces" the subject to be treated of. We have also to " produce," that is, to bring forth, and that which is so brought forth is called the " pro-duce," spelt the same but pronounced differently, it is usual with verbs and nouns. The " product" is used to describe something produced or brought forth by nature, as fruits, grain, or metals. It also signifies the sum, as the " product" of many numbers added together; and the result, as the "product" of a trade, which is called " productive," if able or fitted to " produce" a profit. To " reduce" is to bring back; but in this, its primary meaning, it has become obsolete.* The word is now used in the sense of diminishing, that is to bring back to its former state,—to its component parts. It is likewise employed to ex-
* " Abate the edge of traitors, gracious lord !
That would reduce these bloody days again."—Shakspeare.
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press a bringing into subjection.* A " reduction" means a diminution; and in arithmetic "reduction" brings two or more numbers of different denominations into one denomination. The verb "seduce" and the noun " seduction" refer to a leading away out of the path; and that which is apt to have this effect of misleading is called " seductive." To " superinduce" is to bring in as an addition to, or over and above something else; and to " traduce" means to draw from one side to another; used in a metaphorical sense, to sig-nify a drawing away from privacy before the public gaze; and as this is usually done with a bad motive, the word is restricted to defamation, and the detraction of another's character.
The Latin verb, esse, to be, with the present participle ens, (entis), being, is to be found incorporated into many of our familiar words. Hence we have " entity," meaning a real being; and " essence," which Locke defines " as the very being of a thing, whereby it is what it is." In popular language, this word is used to describe the odour or perfume of any thing, or the principal constituent quality of it. That which is necessary to the constitution or existence of any thing is " essential" to it. " Absent" means being away from; an "absentee" is one who resides
* " . . . Under thee, as head supreme,
Thrones, princedoms, pow'rs, dominions, I reduce."—Milton.
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away from his property. " Presence," on the other hand, is being before one; as the Irish peasant describes it, being to the fore. From this comes the verb to "present," and the noun "presen-tation," implying being set before one. The Almighty who is in every place is " omnipre-sent," a word compounded with the Latin adjective omnis, all. That which gives us concern is said to " interest" us; the word signifying having a share in, and alluding to something that is or exists between you and me. Hence the noun is applied to any thing from which an advantage is derived; and " interest" for the use of money is the compensation paid for the profit which the borrower may derive from the use of the principal. " Quintessence," literally a fifth essence, means an extract from anything containing all its virtues in a small quantity. To " represent" is to exhibit as again present, or to bring before us the likeness or image of a thing; and a " representative" is one who is present for another, as a mem-ber of parliament sent to the House of Commons (which itself " represents" the people), to be present instead of his " constituents," that is, those who constitute him their representative. But this is anticipating another verb, to come under consideration in due course.
LECTURE III.
W
ORDS
FORMED FROM LATIN VERBS.