The complex sentence

A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, attribute, apposition, adverbial modifier).

Clauses in a complex sentence may be joined in two ways:

1. Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses and expressing the relation between them. They usually stand at the beginning of a joined clause. A connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.

She became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul (conjunction).

All that he had prepared was of no use any more (connective).

2. Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.

The book you gave me is very interesting.

He said he would come in the evening.

A complex sentence may consist of more than two clauses. It may form a hierarchy of clauses.

I see that you have lost the key which I gave you.

Principal clause		Subordinate clause		Subordinate clause

The principal clause may have several subordinate clauses of equal rank.

I know that you are afraid of me and that you suspect me of something.

		Subordinate clause
Principal clause		and
		Subordinate clause

The principal clause may have several subordinate clauses with different functions.

All she saw was that she might go to prison for a robbery she had committed years ago.

Principal			Predicative
Clause			clause
All … was			… that she might go to prison for a robbery
Attributive			Attributive
Clause			clause
… she saw …			… she had committed

Subject clauses perform the function of a subject to a predicate of the principal clause. In this case the principal clause has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such. Subject clauses answer the questions What? and Who?

What you say

is interesting.

What is interesting?

Complex sentences with a subject clause may be of two types:

1. With a subject clause preceding the predicate of the principal clause.

What I need is a piece of good advice.

Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious.

How the book will be sold depends on its plot and the author.

2. With a subject clause in the final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it.

It is strange that he has made a mistake.

It is uncertain when we shall start.

It is not known yet whether they will come today.

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:

1. by means of conjunctions that, if, whether.

It is understood that modern science allows such experiments.

b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when,

how, why.

What was done cannot be undone.

Whatever I can do for you is paying a debt.

c) asyndedically.

It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her.

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate –– a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. Predicative clauses answer the questions What is the subject? What is the subject like?

The trouble is

that I have lost his address.

What is the trouble?

Complex sentences with a predicative clause may be of two types:

1. The predicative clause may follow the principal clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning.

The problem is not who will go, but who will say.

The question is whether they are able to help us.

2. The predicative clause may follow the principal clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison.

It appears he hasn’t been here.

It sounded as if it were here.

This type of sentences shouldn’t be confused with complex sentences with a subject clause, which also begins with it. In sentences with a subject clause the predicate of the principal clause is complete, whereas in the case of a predicative clause it consists only of the link verb. Compare:

It seems that there is no care (a predicative clause).

It seems evident that there is no care (a subject clause).

Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

1. by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if.

Our attitude is that facts are facts.

I felt as if death had laid a hand on me.

2. by means of the connectives who, which, what, where, when, how, why.

The weather is not what it was yesterday.

The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet.

3. asyndetically.

Another thing was they made him stay for one more week.

In the case when a complex sentence consists of a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.

What he says	is	that he goes away.
a subject clause		a predicative clause

What we want to know	is	what the French are going to do now.
a subject clause		a predicative clause

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause. They answer the questions What? About what? For what? etc.

He told them	what he had seen there
What did he tell?

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite from of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word denoting state.

I left her to do whatever she liked.

He has just gone away saying that he will return in an hour.

He was glad that no one was at home.

Complex sentences with an object clause may be of two types:

1. A direct object clause, which follows directly the word it refers to. A particular case of this type of object clauses is indirect speech following verbs of saying.

I know when I am wasting time.

He asked me if I wanted to stay.

An object clause may refer to formal it followed by the objective predicative.

He made it clear that his intentions were honest

I think it necessary that you should go there at once.

I like it when people are nice to me.

2. A prepositional object clause, when an object clause is introduced by the prepositions after, about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as, to, etc.

I am not certain of what he did.

I want to be paid for what I do.

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:

1. by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

Time will show whether I am right or wrong.

b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, where, when,

how, why.

I’ll do just what I say.

He wondered why he should look back.

I don’t know where I have lost it.

c) asyndetically.

I know he has returned.

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun or a pronoun in the principal clause. This pronoun or noun is called the antecedent of the clause. Usually the attributive clause immediately follows its antecedent, they answer the questions What? Which?

What man?
The man	who was here yesterday	is a painter.

An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives: relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or relative adverbs (when, where). The choice of relative word depends on the meaning of the antecedent.

1. If the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative word who, whom, whose or that is used.

A man whose voice seemed familiar to me gave commands.

2. If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion the relative word which, whose or that is used.

He went to the next house which stood in a small garden.

3. If the antecedent is expressed by all denoting a living being the pronoun who or that is used; if it denotes a thing or notion the pronoun that is generally used.

All that remained was to thank them and say “good-bye”.

4. If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally used or the clause is joined asyndetically.

There was nothing in his face that spoke of his character.

Everything you may want is in the wardrobe.

5. If the antecedent is modified by the adjective only, the pronoun any or by an adjective in the superlative degree, the attributive clause is introduced by the pronoun that or asyndetically.

There is the only chance (that) we have.

6. Attributive clauses joined by the relative adverbs when, where refer to antecedents denoting space or time.

It is the hour when we asleep.

7. The relative adverb why refers to antecedents denoting cause or reason.

They see no reason why they should do it.

Depending on the degree of connection attributive clauses fall into two types: attributive restrictive clauses and attributive descriptive clauses.

1. Attributive restrictive clauses are very closely connected with the antecedent and cannot be removed from the sentence because the information contained in the attributive clause determines or particularizes the person, thing, idea expressed by the antecedent. Therefore the meaning of the principal clause is not complete or even changed without the subordinate clause.

A library is a place where they keep books.

This is the kind of job I’d like.

I used to learn by heart the things they had written.

2. Attributive descriptive clauses are characterized by a looser connection with the principal clause. Usually it contains additional information about the antecedent and may be left out without any serious change in the meaning of the principal clause. They are joined by the same connectives as restrictive clauses, although the relative pronoun that and asyndetic connection are not possible.

I returned to London, where I remained for a week.

I consulted my father who promised to help me.

All that could be done had been done.

An attributive descriptive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence, series of sentences or even a whole story is called continuative attributive clause.

He was not indoors, which was a relief to her.

She lived in two rooms over a teashop, which was convenient, since she could send down for cakes if she had visitors.

Attributive appositive clauses. Unlike an apposition in a simple sentence, which usually gives another name to the person or thing disignated by the antecedent, an appositive clause discloses the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the connectives how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically, e.g.

He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

The question whether it was he or was hotly discussed.

The matter how and why those people got the information still

worried him.

Adverbial clauses perform the function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. They answer the questions of adverbial modifiers.

I saw him	when I was at the club
When did you see him?

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes adverbial clauses of condition. According to their meaning we distinguish adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner and comparison.

Adverbial clauses of time show the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, since, after, before, now, that.

My sister was born when I was eight years old.

I stopped as soon as I saw Susan.

Whenever there was a pause, he gently asked again.

After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Moscow.

We have not had any news from him since he left Moscow.

The conjunctions till and until introduce clause which fix the end of the action in the principal clause if the latter contains no negation.

She resolved to wait till Clym came to look for her.

If the time reference in the subordinate clause with till or until is to a commencement point, the main clause is always negative.

He did not say a word till he was asked.

They did not marry until she was forty.

The boy did not start to read until he went to school.

The conjunction since may introduce a clause which indicates the beginning of a period of time continuing until now or until some time in the past. In the first case the

Present Perfect is used in the principal clause, in the second –– the Past Perfect. In the temporal clause the Past Indefinite is used in both cases.

I have only seen him once since I left school.

Adverbial clauses in sentences of the following type are also clauses of time.

Scarcely had his hands touched her head, when she sighed deeply.

Hardly had they entered the house, when a violent thunderstorm broke out.

No sooner had I wiped one drop from my cheek, than another followed.

The conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of place show the place or the direction of the action in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions where and whenever.

I like to spend my leave where I can shoot.

He went where the doctor sent him.

Whenever he went, he was welcome.

Adverbial clauses of cause (reason) show the cause or motivation of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that, in view of the fact that, in so far as, etc.

I went away because there was no one there.

He walked quickly for he was in a great hurry.

Since you have finished your work, you may go home.

Now that he is here, he can help you.

Each of the conjunctions expresses a certain shade of causative meaning, and so they are not always interchangeable. Because usually introduces clauses with the meaning of real cause. This can be illustrated by the ability of because-clauses (but not others) to be included in questions. Thus it is correct to say:

Did you ask him because he was famous?

But it is wrong to say:

Did you ask him since he was famous?

Unlike because the conjunctions since and as introduce clauses with an explanatory meaning or that of motivation.

Since you are here, we may begin our talk.

The other reason why causal conjunctions are not always interchangeable with because, is that some of them are polyfunctional: as and since may be conjunctions of time, as well as of cause.

We had to carry the luggage ourselves as there were no porters (causal relation).

His mood changed as they marched down to the clocks (temporal relation).

Adverbial clauses of purpose generally contain a planned action, which is to be achieved by the action expressed by the predicate or any verbal part in the principal clause. The predicate in the subordinate clause is in the Subjunctive mood. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by conjunctions that, so that, lest, so as, so, in order that, for fear that.

The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him.