CANADA.LOCATION.LOCAL DIVISION

the Arctic Archipelago -  Канадский Арктический архипелаг  Cape Columbia - мыс Колумбия the North Pole - Северный полюс the Arctic Ocean - Северный Ледовитый океан the Gulf of Alaska - зал. Аляска Hudson Bay - Гудзонов залив the Hudson Strait - Гудзонов пролив the Gulf of Saint Lawrence - залив Св. Лаврентия Vancouver Island - остров Ванкувер Prince Edward Island - остров Принца Эдуарда Newfoundland - остров Ньюфаундленд Baffin Island - остров Баффинова Земля Labrador - п-ов Лабрадор the Grand Bank - Большая Ньюфаундлендская Банка the Beaufort Sea - море Бофорта Baffin Bay - море Баффина fjord (fiord)  - a long narrow arm of the sea between the high cliffs, as in Norway - норв. фиорд inland sea - внутреннее море Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south and with the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. Its territories include the Arctic Archipelago with its numerous islands.  The northernmost point is in latitude 83* North, Cape Columbia. By total area (including its waters) [3,851,790 sq.ml], Canada is the second largest country in the world-after Russia-and largest on the continent. By land area it ranks fourth.  It comes very close to the North Pole (within 800 km distance).  Canada has the longest coastline in the world: 243,000 kilometers. The country has three sea coasts.  All the coasts are identified by the numerous gulfs and fjords of the 3 oceans. The different oceans currents mix and thus has created one of the reaches fishing grounds in the world.   The main Gulfs are: -        The Gulf of Alaska in the Pacific -        The Hudson Bay (is a huge inland sea) and the Hudson Straight (that connects Hudson bay with the Atlantic) and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in the Atlantic  -        The Beauford Sea and  the Baffin Bay in the Arctic Ocean   Islands: Vancouver Island ,Prince Edward Island , Newfoundland          Baffin Island  Labrador is a large peninsula in the East The Grand Banks is a shallow continental shelf which extends 400 km east of Newfoundland. From east to west Canada covers (comprises) 6 time zones (the westernmost Pacific zone is 8 hours behind GMT (Greenwich Meridian). The Moscow time zone is 3 hours after GMT).  Local Division Canada is divided into 10 provinces and 3 territories, each with its own capital city. 

CANADA.RELIEF

the Canadian Shield - Канадский щит Precambrian - геол. Докембрийский the Appalachians - Аппалачи the St. Lawrence - Great Lakes Lowland - долина реки Св. Лаврентия и Великих озёр the Great Plains (the Prairies) - Великие равнины (прерии) the Cordilleras: - Кордильеры:  the Rocky Mountains - Скалистые горы         Mount Robson (3954 m) - гора Робсон the Coast Range - Береговой хребет         Mount Waddington (4042 m) - гора Уоддингтон the Selkirks - горы Селкерк the Yukon - плато Юкон the  Mackenzie Mountains - горы Макензи the Saint Elias Range - горы Святого Ильи         Mount Logan (6050 m) - гора Логан nucleus - ядро  valley - долина volcanic activity - вулканическая активность When speaking about Canada's nature in general we should say, that if such a comparatively as the UK is varied n scenery, it goes without saying that geography of the world's second largest country is diverse. Diversity (variety) is a keyword (keynote) of Canada's geography. In the centre of the country there is a great plain called the Canadian Shield. It is a vast plateau around Hudson Bay, stretching east to Labrador, south to Lake Ontario and Northwest to the Arctic Ocean.  It is Canada's largest geographical feature. The Shield is considered to be the nucleus of the North American continent. Its rocks are 3.5 billion years old (the Precambrian Shield) The Eastern Provinces form part of the Appalachians, also an ancient mountain range.  The St. Lawrence Lowlands - along the St. Lawrence River, is where more than a half of population lives. The St. Lawrence - The Great Lakes Lowlands - this area is also called.     West to the Canadian Shield as far as the Rocky Mountains are the Great Plains (the Prairies). It is a huge flat region.  The western part of the country is occupied by a vast mountainous region the Cordilleras. The Cordilleras in General go from north to south all through the North American continent, then they go to Central America and to the South American continent where they are called the Andes. The Canadian Cordilleras consist of: -        the Rocky Mountains, from the eastern edge of the area they rise from 2000 to 4000 meters. The highest peak is Mount Robson. (3945 m) -        the Coast Range - comes along the Pacific coast. At some points it is even higher than the Rockies, its highest point being over 4000 m (4042) - Mount Waddington. The Cordilleras in general are a geologically young land; compared with the ancient Canadian Shield so western Canada has many volcanoes and is part of the system of volcanoes found around the margins of the Pacific Ocean, which is called the Pacific Ring of Fire. There are over 200 young volcanic centers that stretch northward from the Cascade Range to the Yukon Territory. They are grouped into five volcanic belts with different volcano types and tectonic settings (volcanic active zone). Between the Rockies and the Coast Range lie a series of lesser mountain ranges and valleys: - the Selkirk  The northern part of the Canadian Cordilleras is made up by: - the Yukon  - the Mackenzie Mountains  - the Saint Elias Range  The highest point in Canada is Mount Logan (6050 m) [the Saint Elias Range].

CANADA.CLIMATE.INLAND WATERS

climatic zones               arctic zone - арктический пояс               subarctic zone - субарктический пояс               temperate zone - умеренный пояс types of climate:               maritime climate - морской климат                West-Coast climate - климат западного побережья               continental climate - континентальный климат               monsoon climate - муссонный климат fluctuation - колебание wind erosion - ветровая эрозия permafrost - вечная мерзлота the "chinook" - ветер «чинук» hail - град drought - засуха rugged climate - cуровый, непостоянный to irrigate - орошать   Canadians climate is characterized by its diversity, as temperature and precipitation differ from region to region and from season to season. Factors influencing Canada's climate: 1)        Latitude (extension from South to North) Since Canada's extention from soutj to north is 40*, the country is situated in 3 climatic zones: -        the temperate zone (southern parts up to latitude approximately 60* North) -        the subarctic zone (covers the parts of the country between latitude 60* North and the Arctic circle) -        the arctic zone (includes territories, lying beyond the arctic circle)

2)        Flow of air masses The usual air flow is from west to east.  In winter it is disrupted by arctic air which moves down from the Arctic and is cold and dry.In summer the western air flow is disrupted by warm tropical air, moving from the southeast. This movement of airmasses together with the countrys position between the Oceans account for fact that there are several types of of climate within one climatic zone  -        the coastal parts (western and eastern) enjoy the maritime climate with abundant precipitation -        the central interior parts enjoy the continental climate, which is characterized by great seasonal fluctuations in temperature and by a lesser amount of rainfall throughout the year. 3)        The relief (the effect of mountain ranges, plains and bodies of water) The Cordilleran mountain system blocks the warm moist Pacific air from the interior plains of the Great Plains (the Prairie Provinces). The moist air is forced to rise over the mountains, it cools as it rises and falls on the western slopes in heavy amounts of precipitation, as rain in lower altitudes and snow at higher ones.  On the lowland side of the mountains a rain-shadow effect is created. The valleys between the mountain ranges and the Great Plains lying further east receive much less precipitation. The rainfall is not sufficient and farmers have to irrigate their crops.  Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary depending on the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces which experience a continental climatewhere daily average temperatures are near −15   but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia is an exception and enjoys a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coast, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C, while between the coasts the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C. According to climate, Canada can be divided in to 5 regions: 1)        The West Coast (the coast of British Columbia) - a temperate maritime West-Coast climate [the most temperate climate in Canada].  2)        The Prairies (the Great Planes: Alberta. Saskatchewan, Manitoba) - a temperate continental climate [wind erosions, drought, thunderstorms, hailstorms, early autumn frosts,Chinook] 3)        The Great Lakes (St. Lawrence region) - a temperate continental climate 4)        Atlantic Canada - a temperate monsoon climate [rugged and variable] 5)        The North     - a subarctic and arctic climate [permafrost]

the St. Lawrence - р. Св. Лаврентия

the Ottawa - р. Оттава

the Mackenzie - р. Макензи

the Peace - р. Пис

the Youkon - р. Юкон

the Columbia - р. Колумбия

the Frazer - р. Фрейзер

the Saskatchewan - р. Саскачеван

the Liard - р. Лиард

the Athabasca - р. Атабаска

the Nelson - р. Нельсон

the Churchil - р. Черчилль

the Great Bear Lake - оз. Большое Медвежье

the Great Slave Lake - оз. Большое невольничье

Lake Athabasca - оз. Атабаска

Lake Winnipeg - оз. Виннипег

Lake Manitoba - оз. Манитоба

Lake Agassiz - оз. Агассиз

 glacier - глетчер, ледник ice age - ледниковый период Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 9% of the world's renewable water supply, it contains a quarter of the world's wetlands, and it has the third largest amount of glaciers (after Antarctica and Greenland). Because of extensive glaciations, Canada hosts more than two million lakes: of those that are entirely within Canada, more than 31,000 are between 3 and 100 square kilometers (1.2 & 38.6 mi²) in area, while 563 are larger than 100 km²

Rivers

The St. Lawrence (3050 km long) is Canada's most important river, for it provides a seaway for ships from the great lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. The Ottawa is its tributary. The longest Canadian river is the Mackenzie, which flows 4241 km through the Northwest Territories from the Great Slave Lake to the Beaufort Sea (the Arctic Ocean).  A tributary of the Mackenzie is the South Nahanni River, which is home to Virginia Falls, a waterfall about twice as high as Niagara Falls. The Laird is another tributary of the Mackenzie. Mackenzie's length is counted together with the Peace. The Athabasca is another river of the arctic basin.Other large water recourses include the Yukon in the north and the Columbia in the Southeast, parts of these rivers flow through the US territory. The Frazer flows from the Rockies into Pacific. The Saskatchewan, the Nelson and the Churchill are the large river emptying into the Hudson Bay.

Lakes

There are some 2 million lakes in Canada. They cover about 7.6% of the Canadian landmass.  Most of the lakes are glacial. The 4 Great lakes are the most visible results of the ice age in Ontario.  The largest Lake Superior is the world's largest body of fresh water. The other Great Lakes in Canada are: Huron, Eerie and Ontario. They are traversed by the Canada-US border. Canada shares them with the US. The largest lake situated entirely in Canada is the Great Bear Lake in the Northwestern territories.  Another large lake in the Northwestern territories is the Great Slave Lake. Saskatchewan (Lake Athabasca) and Manitoba (Winnipeg and Manitoba are the remains of the Lake Agassiz, which covered much of the province right after the ice age) are provinces of more than 100 000 lakes each.

CANADA.VEGETATION.WILD LIFE.

boreal forest - бореальный (северный) лес, тайга

grassland (prairies) - степи, прерии, луга

tundra - тундра

conifers:  - хвойные породы деревьев

spruce - ель

white spruce - ель канадская (белая)

black spruce - ель черная

Sitka spruce - ель ситхинская

pine - сосна

lodgepole pine - сосна скрученная широкохвойная

red pine - сосна смолистая

white pine - сосна Веймутова

fir - пихта

hemlock - тсуга

cedar - кедр

western red cedar - туя

hardwoods (broad-leaved trees):

oak - дуб

red oak - дуб красный

white oak - дуб белый

ash - ясень

yellow birch - береза желтая

sugar maple - клен сахарный

mixed forest (coniferous - broad-leaved) - смешанный (хвойно-широколиственный) лес

barren (badland) - бесплодный

lichens - лишайники

shrub - кустарник

wilderness - дикая местность, девственная природа

fragile - хрупкий, непрочный

tree-line - верхняя (северная) граница произрастания лесов

Banff - национальный парк Бэнф

Canada's vegetation is relatively young, for 15000 years ago the entire country except for the west coast was covered with ice during the glacial period. The flora of Canada is quite diverse, due to the wide range of ecoregions and environmental conditions present in Canada. From the warm, temperate broadleaf forests of southern Ontario to the frigid Arctic plains of the Northern Canada, from the wet temperate rainforests of the west coast to the arid deserts, badlands and tundra plains, the biodiversity of Canada's plants is extensive. About 4,100 species of vascular plants are native to Canada, and about 1,200 additional non-native species are recorded as established outside cultivation there. Many of the plants seen in Canada are introduced, either intentionally or accidentally.  The dominant vegetation of the country is forest. It covers almost 50% of Canada's landmass. Canada's natural vegetation can be described as falling into five areas: 1). Boreal forest ("the great northern" forest)  It is the largest of the areas Extends from coast to coast and covers almost 40% of the country It is primarily coniferous, the dominant tree spices are the white spruce and balsam fir and jack pine are also common In the West - alpine fir and lodgepole pine.  2). Grasslands  Prairies occupy Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.  The prairies are mostly cultivated and covered with grains. 3). Tundra It is in the far north and thus is situated north to the tree-line. It is mostly flat, barren, rocky region. There are practically no trees or shrubs.  The most common plants are lichens and small wildflowers. 4). Forests of the southeast  The Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Lowland and the Appalachian region - south of the boreal forest.  This is the area of a mixed forest (coniferous - broad leaved).  It consists of conifers (evergreen softwood) and hardwoods. Chief conifers are: hemlock and pine (white, red and jack pine). The principal hardwoods are: oaks (red and white), ash, yellow birch, maples. The sugar maple is one of Canada's best known symbols [the maple leaf is on Canada's flag]   5). Forests of the southwest These forests in British Columbia contain a richer variety of species than elsewhere. Douglas fir, cedar, western red cedar, western hemlock and Sitka spruce.  Since much of Canada's land is still in a state of Wilderness, there is a concern for it's preservation of human activities expansion. Due to the northern location the ecology in most of the area is especially fragile. Canada maintains 38 national parks, which cover about 2% of the country's landmass. Banff is the oldest (est. 1885), is located on the eastern slopes of Alberta's Rocky Mountains.  Canada also has over 1000 provincial parks and nearly 50 territorial parks.  

Mamals the beaver - бобр coyote - койот moose - лось mink - норка otter - выдра woodland caribou - лесной карибу muskrat - ондатра black bear - бурый медведь red fox - рыжая лисица mountain goat - снежная коза mountain sheep - снежны баран buffalo, bison - бизон grizzly - гризли white-tailed deer - белохвостый олень Birds the Canada jay - кукша the white throated sparrow - белошейная  Fish trout - форель whitefish - сиг sturgeon - осетр perch - окунь pike - щука lobster - омар  salmon - лосось herring - селедка halibut - палтус cod - треска Canada has abundant wildlife, yet its conservation is a necessity. The fauna of Canada is considered to be diverse across Canada. Canada has multiple ecosystems, ranging from lush forests of British Columbia, to the prairies of Western Canada, to the tundra of the Northern Canada. With a large land mass, and small population density, the wild lands of Canada provide important habitat for many animals, both endangered and not. The most threatened wildlife species (with fauna too) of Canada are listed in the List of Wildlife Species at Risk according the Canadian Species at Risk Act. Boreal forests Mammals: -        the beaver, wolf,      coyote, moose,        mink,      otter,      

- woodland caribou -        muskrat,   black bear,     red fox Birds: -        the Canada jay -        the white throated sparrow Fish: -        trout     whitefish   sturgeon     perch      pike the Rocky mountains (the wildlife is typical of North America) -        the mountain sheep-        the mountain goat -        the mountain caribou-        bear (grizzly and black) the Pacific coast -        salmon-        herring-        halibut-        cod the Great Lowlands - St. Lawrence Lowlands -        white-tailed deer -        red deer  Atlantic coastal waters -        cod-        lobster-        herring -        and other fish Canadian buffalo are bison. The bison now exists only in government parks.  Birds are numerous. Thee are about 500 species of birds in Canada.  

CANADA.POPULATION.PROBLEM OF QUEBEC

Canada's population is now over 30 mln. people. Canada is one of the most urbanized nations, according to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). In 2001, 79.4% of Canadians lived in an urban centre of 10,000 people or more, compared with 78.5% in 1996. During this five-year period, the population of these areas increased 5.2%, while the population living outside them declined slightly (-0.4%).

Ethnic composition

French Canadians - франко-канадцы "Open Door" policy - политика «открытых дверей» сentennial - cтолетие, столетний юбилей autonomy - автономия self-determination - cамоопределение self-government - cамоуправление reserve - резервация living standards - уровень жизни literacy - грамотность life expectancy - продолжение жизни refugees - Беженцы, иммигранты to assert one's rights - отстаивать свои права the assembly of first nations - ассамблея коренных народов Aboriginal peoples - коренные народы The Indians - индейцы Inuit (Eskimo) - инуиты Métis - метис About 40% of Canadians are of British origin About 25% are of French origin (stock) Recently people of French decent constituted 30 %, but the figure has dropped to about a quarter of the population and continues to fall.  The majority of French-Canadians live in Quebec, but there are also large numbers of them in other provinces: New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.  The English speaking population is descendants of immigrants from the UK and the USA. Over 3,5 mln. Canadians are of Scottish or Irish origin.  Canada's 3rd largest ethnic group is German. Other European minorities are Ukrainian, Scandinavian, Italian, Dutch, Polish and Greek. More recent immigrants have been coming from Hong Kong (Asia), they are Chinese, from Lain America and blacks from the Caribbean. Nowadays there are 60,000 blacks in Canada.  Canada receives refuges from all over the world.  Toronto is the center for international immigration, thus it is one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world.  Canada's population is varied due to its "Open Door" policy of immigration which began in 1890's. Most of the immigrants chose English as their Language in Canada and now the official figures of the ethnic groups give English 61%, French 25%.  Britain's North America Act of 1867 established the Dominion of Canada and laid constitutional basis for the country where French-Canadians were an oppressed nation. When Canada was approaching its centennial there had been a surge of French-Canadian nationalism. It was expressed in Quebec's demands for greater autonomy and for measures to preserve French culture in North America.  Canadians believe they are more tolerant. In fact there has been little tension between whites and blacks in Canada.  Aboriginal peoples Are Native Canadians = "First Nations": The Indians Inuit (Eskimo) Métis They make 4% of Canada's total population Inuit is the general term for the Eskimo peoples in Canada. This is the name they call themselves to distinguish themselves from the Eskimo of Asia.  Métis are people of mixed aboriginal and European blood. The majority of native Canadians live in the three territories and Ontario  Besides every province has their aboriginal community. Inuit make the majority of population in Nunavut. The creation of this territory in 1999 marks a profound shift in how Canada relates to aboriginal people. It restores to Inuit their self-determination they had had before the arrival of Europeans.  The Native Indians number some 300 000. The live mostly on reserves and are excluded from the mainstream of the nation's life. There are over 2000 reserves in Canada, where Indians live in poverty. Their literacy, life expectancy are much lower compared with those of other Canadians.  Since 1980's Indian leaders have become more active in their claims for political, social and other rights. There are a number of national organizations trying to assert Indian's rights, with the Assembly of First nations among them. The Indians need some form of self-government, native Indian schools, fishing and hunting rights. Native Indians have also become more active in trying to restore their culture and language.    

Languages

Indigenous -     1.   туземный, местный                     2.   природный, врожденный the Official Language Act - Закон о государственных языках English-versus-French Struggle - борьба франко и англоязычных канадцев за признание государственным одного из двух языков separatist movement - сепаратистское движение muskeg - озерное болото шgloo - иглу kayak - каяк Anglophone - Англоязычный Francophone - Франкоязычный English and French are both official languages, but 20% of the population speaks only French, while 13% speak both French and English. The French speaking province is Quebec. French is the mother tongue of 82% of Quebec's population. In the other 9 provinces English is the majority language.  The Official Languages Act (1982) makes the French language the equal of English in all branches of federal service. But the Act hasn't ended the English-versus-French struggle. Tensions between French-speaking Quebec and the other 9 provinces remain high. The tensions reached a new level of intensity in 1974, when the Quebec parliament passed a law making French the only official language of the province.  The English-versus-French struggle is only a part of the separatist movement in Quebec. It is the movement foe Quebec's independence. It's a political issue. Some separatist extremists resorted to terrorism.  In October 1970 separatist terrorists in Montreal kidnapped a British diplomat and Quebec's labor minister. The problem of Quebec's place in the Canadian confederation remains unsolved.  Many immigrants use their mother tongues. As far as the original indigenous languages are concerned, some groups of Native Indians and Inuit speak them. But in other Native Indian Communities only the older people know their mother tongue. But some words of Indian or Inuit languages are commonly used, for example:

Muskeg igloo kayak

                     There are several Inuit languages. They are interesting for use of many words for what appears to be the same thing for a civilized person. For example, there are about 20 words for "snow" depending on its consistency and texture. This linguistic peculiarity is quite understandable, since the Inuit have been more close to Nature than the so called civilized nations, and such details as different types of snow are very important to them.  Today about half of Canada's native people can speak their original language. 53 indigenous languages are spoken (dialects), they fall into 11 broader families. North America is considered to be one of the most complex linguistic regions of the world. Canadian English Canada inherited English primarily from the British settlers of the 19th century.  The British English remains the basis of the Canadian English. There are some pronunciation differences. Grammatical differences are few. Canadian vocabulary has been enriched by the words from the Native Indian and Inuit languages as well as from French.  There are no dialects of English in Canada, but there are some relational variations in pronunciation depending on from what parts of the UK the British settlers came. For example, in Ottawa Valley the pronunciation is influenced by the Irish, who settled there in the 19th century. In recent years Canadian English has been strongly influenced by the USA, through mass media and the use of US textbooks in schools. US spelling is becoming more common, though only recently British spelling rules were out served (br - am: centre - center; habour - harbor; cheque - check). The most recognizable Canadian expression is the interrogative "eh?" at the end of many spoken sentences.  Canadian contribution to he English language includes such words like:

kerosene

puck (ice hockey term)

bushed (exhausted)

moose, muskeg (are Anglicized Native Indian words)