12. Source and ecological consequences of

LITHOSPHERE POLLUTION

SOIL is the top layer of the land surface of the earth that is composed

of disintegrated rock particles, humus, water, and air. It is laboratory to make

processes of decomposition and synthesis of organic substances.

The most valuable property of the soil is FERTILITY: ability to supply

plants with moisture and nutritious substances.

Processes which distort soil are: erosion, salification, ravaging, swamping,

mudflow, land-slide, contamination, tearing away.

The EROSION the wearing away of rocks and other deposits on the earth's

surface by the action of water, ice, wind, etc.

SALIFICATION is a process of accumulation natrium, cadmium,

manganese saline in the soil in unacceptable concentration.

RAVAGING is transformation of fertile ground to infertile desert.

SWAMPING is the excess moisture contents in soil.

MUDFLOW is a flow of soil mixed with water down a steep unstable slope.

The LAND-SLIDE is sliding of a large mass of rock material, soil, etc.,

down the side of a mountain or cliff.

CONTAMINATION is covering of a surface or penetration of the soil by

industrial or economic activity waste. There’re so-called «industrial desert» -

land space where the ground is polluted with industrial waste appeared due to

people activity. The industrial sewage is expedient to be used or reprocessed. The

perspective industrial trend is wasteless and low-wasted technologies.

TEARING AWAY is transferring of agricultural areas or wood for cities,

industry, highways, pipelines and other needs construction.

BOWELS are the upper accessible layer of lithosphere.

Bowels are used for:

1. extracting minerals;

2. storing of liquid and gaseous minerals;

3. building up the structures and transport communications;

4. burial of sewage and waste water.

There’s always an interaction that goes between human and environment.

It’s substance and energy exchange.

For example we’ll examine exchange that goes through the air. Heat

exchange and gas exchange: air is the source of oxygen.

Soil and water are sources of the basic NUTRITION elements:

1. proteins;

2. carbohydrates;

3. fats;

4. minerals;

5. water;

6. vitamins.

PROTEIN is a plastic material to build new cells. Getting into organism

with food it decomposes for amino-acids which then forms human protein.

CARBOHYDRATE serves as a source of energy, they are also called

glucose.

FAT is a fuel for organism. There’s an expression: “Fats burn in the flame of

carbohydrates extracting energy, necessary to build protein and in turn new cells.

As any fire it takes oxygen.

Body consists of WATER at 68-70%.

MINERALS assist to intake water. Water goes towards minerals.

VITAMINS are substances providing proper functioning of every organ.

13. KNOWLEDGE OF NITRATES

Nitrate is saline of nitrogen acid most widespread substance in nature.

Nitrates take place in a ground, water, they are the chemical components of

plants, products of substances’ exchange in organism of human and animal. People

experience nitrates influence during living all the time. However, in case when

loading of these substances on an organism is too heavy they can have a negative

effect.

There’re known over 20 factors able to bring to increased nitrates

accumulation in vegetative food. They concern to: light deficit, heat and cold

in plants vegetation period, drought and constant overly humidifying, large and

small amount of such elements as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorum in a ground,

biological activity of a ground, ground acidity, ground disease etc. But the primary

factor stays non-rational applying of nitrogen fertilizers, violation of agrotechnic

processing agricultural cultures.

The problem of nitrates has arisen due to use of mineral fertilizers

containing nitrogen:

potassium niter KNO3;

natrium niter NaNO3;

ammoniac niter NH4NO3.

Such important components as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and

other, and also various chemical substances: pesticides, toxic elements, nitrates and

other take place in foodstuffs. Contents of chemical substances in food can vary

in wide range: from concentration safe for people, to their level which represents

actual danger for health. Nitrates serve as the obligatory part of foodstuffs, but

their amount should stay in acceptable limits of concentration.

The problem of nitrates has two aspects: which are interconnected but have

some features. It is the aspect of nitrates in potable water and aspect of nitrates

containing in foodstuffs.

Nitrate is a toxic substance.

Intoxication by nitrates is characterized by heavy passing and can bring to

lethal effects. Nitrates toxic action consists in hypoxia (deficiency in the amount of

oxygen delivered to the body tissues).

Clinical indications of nitrates poisoning occur in 1 .. 1,5 hours after getting

into an organism with potable water. At first period there’s cyanosis of lips,

mucous membranes, nails and face observed. Then it comes sickness, stomach

each, salivary emissions, vomiting. In case of nitrates getting into organism with

food the latent period of disease is more prolonged - from 4 till 6 hours.

When there’s suspicion of poisoning by nitrates and nitrites patient gets:

1. stomach washing out,

2. taking suspension of activated carbon (2 spoons per glass of water),

3. salt laxative mixture.

The hygienic regulation of acceptable concentration provides the acceptable

daily doze of nitrates. It makes 5 mg per 1 kg of body weight of a person.

Nitrates can be accumulated in the increased amount not only in vegetative

food, but also in food of animal origin and first of all in milk.

Measures to reduce nitrate contents in food are described below.

10 % reduction is reached by usual washing and mechanical clearing of food

(potatoes, beet, carrot, cabbage etc.).

25 .. 30% - 1 hour steeping of the cleaned food: potatoes, carrot, beet,

greens, parsley, fennel, green onions.

Up to 80 % – by cooking potatoes; 60 .. 70 % - carrots and cabbage; 40 ..

50 % - beet.

While boiling they turn into broth and also into pickle or marinade as well.

Making juices and drying of fruits or vegetables, on the contrary, increases

contents of nitrates.

14. METHODS FOR MONITORING NITRATE CONCENTRATION

Monitoring food quality is carried out by:

- manufacturer;

- special official establishments - sanitary-epidemic stations;

- public organizations.

For detection of nitrates there is a whole arsenal of research tests:

We’ll focus in POTENTIOMETER method for nitrate contents determining

applied in this work.

Let’s take two vessels and fill them with any solutions of potassium niter

having different concentrations then connect them with thin pipe which have ion-

selective membrane and capable to pass only ions through (fig. 5).

Dipping into solutions two electrodes connected to milli-voltmeter it’ll

indicate an electromotive force (EMF). This is electrochemical circuit, which work

as a battery.

If to leave concentration of a saline solution in the first vessel unchanged

and to change concentration of solution only in second one, the magnitude of EMF

will be changed accordingly. It is possible to build a calibration curve giving EMF

dependence on concentration of saline solution in the second vessel.

Fig. 5 The scheme for nitrates concentration determining by potentiometer

method:

1,2 - vessels with saline solutions, 3 - pipe with ion-selective membrane, 4,5

- electrodes (metallic wire), 6 - milli-voltmeter.

That curve can be described by the equation

,

(6)

where E - magnitude of electromotive force, mV; E0 - constant, mV; s -

constant coefficient (slope of a curve); C - saline concentration in the second

vessel, mg/l.

Obtained graph can be further applied for determining concentration of

potassium niter in solution (in the second vessel) with unknown concentration.

Solving equation (6) for C we’ll get the following equation for concentration

determination:

E = E0 − s⋅ lg C

C = 10( E 0 − E ) / s .

Instrument and equipment applied in laboratory analysis are shown in fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Nitrate-meter «HM-002»:

1 - transducer; 2 - indicator; 3 - switch; 4 - mode switch; 5 - knobs of variable

resistance; 6 - auxiliary electrode; 7 - measuring electrode; 8 - vessel with solution.

The method of potentiometry described above is the basic for the device

operation.

The device is purposed for the express analysis of nitrates in water solutions

of ground, water, agricultural products.

It consists from two parts: transducer and electrode system. The transducer

1 provides the output of concentration value on indicator 2, not the value of

electromotive force what’s measured. That makes device more convenient in use.

Instrument should be calibrated before use. To do that use 3 solutions with

known concentration of potassium niter KNO3: C1 = 10 mg/l, C1 = 1000 mg/l, C3

= 100 mg/l for device calibration. Dip the electrodes washed out in distil water and

wiped by filter paper into solution with concentration of ions C1 = 10 mg/l. After

1.5 .. 2 min press the button « > 0 < » and set on the device indicator «0.00 m».

15. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONING

Microclimate (meteorological conditions) is assumed a climate of internal

environment of work area that is introduced as common action of the following

parameters: air temperature, air humidity, air circulation and radiant heat.

The environment outside the human’s body is able to accept the heat,

which is worked out by the human. That heat transfers into environment due to

temperature conductivity through the cloth, convection while air contacts open skin

areas, radiant heat, vaporizing of water from the skin surface and heating of air on

respiration. The balance between the heat extracted by body and the absorbed by

environment maintains normal thermal and functional condition of the human.

Imbalance of heat exchange causes over heating or overcooling, then loss of

consciousness or even thermal death. Heat extraction depends on physical exertion

and makes from 85 J/s (easy work) to 500 J/s (heavy work).

Human organism keeps its temperature stable in wide range of

environmental parameters. Body maintains temperature at about 36.6 deg С when

air temperature changes from -40 deg С to +40 deg С. However some parts of the

body may have temperature varying from +24 deg С to +37.1 deg С.

The intensive heat-exchange runs in liver – its temperature equals to

38.0..38.5 deg C. It’s also known the biological cycle of the skin temperature:

maximal (37.0..37.1 deg C) at 4.00 - 7.00 p.m., minimal (36.0..36.2 deg C) at 2.0 -

4.00 a.m.

Lung ventilation is volume of the air inhaled per one hour. It depends on

physical exertion, air humidity, and air temperature.

Thermal condition of person depends on physical exertion, temperature of

surrounding objects and microclimate parameters (air temperature, air circulation,

air humidity and atmospheric pressure).

Low air temperature causes rising heat emission through convection and

radiation and may lead to overcooling of organism.

High air temperature causes opposite process. It’s in fact that work capacity

of a person descents at air temperature over 30 deg C. Insufficient air humidity

causes intensive vaporizing from mucous membranes, their drying and chapping

and consequently infecting. Water and saline removed by sweating should be made

up cause their loss brings to blood clotting and effects cardio-vascular system.

6 % dehydration of organism violates brain activity and worsens vision.

15 - 20% dehydration may be fatal. Low saline concentration deprives blood of

ability to hold water and violates cardio-vascular system. At high air temperature

organism loses carbohydrate, fat, protein.

Longtime being at high air temperature and humidity may cause heat

accumulation in organism and its hyperthermia, when body temperature rises to

38 - 40 deg C. Headache, dizziness, wrong color perception, weakness, mouth

dryness, vomiting, sweating are symptoms of hyperthermia. Increasing heart

rate and respiration riches blood with residual nitrogen and carbon dioxide, what

exhibits as paleness, blue color of skin, wide pupils, sometimes cramps, loss of

consciousness.

Lowering temperature causes overcooling (hypothermia). Decreasing

frequency of respiration follows hypothermia, inhale takes more volume. Then it

comes muscle tremor, which is body reaction that transfers muscles contraction

into heat. That allows holding up lowering temperate for a while. Cold injury is

consequence of low temperature.

Appropriate air circulation makes normal occupational condition also.

Human organism is already sensitive to airflow at 0.15 mps. Air flow temperature

up to 36 deg C makes it feel chilling, and over 40 deg C has inhibiting effect.

Heat transfer from hot or melted surface goes through convection, heat

conductivity and heat radiation. Convection is the process of heat transfer through

a fluid (steam flow, air, liquid), caused by movement of molecules from cool

regions to warmer regions of lower density; heat conductivity is the property

of transmitting heat in solid body; radiant heat is heat transferred in the form

of electromagnetic radiation rather than by conduction or convection (infrared

radiation), infrared radiation transfers into thermal energy only being incident to a

surface.

Radiant energy may cause burns like after direct contact with hot surfaces.

Burns are classified according to the depth of tissue affected:

1. first-degree burn: skin surface painful and red;

2. second-degree burn: blisters appear on the skin;

3. third-degree burn: destruction of both epidermis and dermis.

Heat regulation is called ability of organism to regulate heat exchange with

environment and keep body temperature constantly at normal level independent on

outer conditions and physical activity.

Basic factor of heat regulation is ability to extend or contract blood flow in

peripheral vascular system. Overheating makes vascular system extend and heat

transfers outside more intensive. Overcooling causes contraction of the vascular

system.

16. METEOROLOGICAL STANDARDS

The basic meteorological standard is “GOST 12.1.005-88”, which regulates

microclimate parameters and comprises thermal characteristic of work area,

work category and year period. It provides standards for optimal and acceptable

meteorological conditions.

Optimal meteorological conditions are provided by such microclimate

parameters, which ensure normal thermal and functional condition of human

organism without heat regulation stress. They give feeling of thermal comfort and

create conditions for high productivity of workforce.

Acceptable meteorological conditions are provided by microclimate

parameters, which may induce some changes of thermal and functional condition

but heat regulation stress is relieved in short time. It doesn’t impact health, but may

cause some discomfort and worsen workability.

Considering total energy consumption required for physical activity every

work can be referred to easy, normal or hard work category.

Easy physical work (Category I) is activity with energy consumption up to