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Компьютеры и современные технологии

AMD COMPANY

Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) is a manufacturer of integrated circuits located in Sunnyvale, California. It is the second-largest supplier of x86-compatible processors. It was founded in 1969 by a group of defectors from Fairchild Semiconductor. AMD's current president and CEO is Dr. Hector Ruiz.

AMD is best known for the Athlon, Opteron, Turion64, Sempron and Duron lines of x86-compatible processors. Their more general components have been found in early and current Apple computers and numerous other electronic devices.

The company started as a producer of logic chips in 1969, and then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements such as Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx which were used in various minicomputer designs.

Later AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory. In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of the 8086 and 8088 processors. This put them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets.

AMD produced the 80286, or 286, under the same arrangement, but then Intel cancelled the agreement in 1986, and refused to hand over technical details of the i386 part. Jerry Sanders could have closed the company and retired at this point; instead in 1991 AMD released the Am386, its clone of the later Intel 80386 processor. It took less than a year for AMD to sell a million units. And AMD's 386DX-40 was very popular. AMD followed in 1993 with the Am486. Both sold at a significantly lower price than the Intel versions.

The same time AMD challenged the decision to cancel the agreement, and subsequently won under arbitration. A long process of legal dispute followed, that ended in 1991, when the Supreme Court of California finally sided with AMD, and forced Intel to pay over $ 1 billion in compensation for violation of contract.

But on December 30, 1994 the Supreme Court of California finally formally denied AMD rights to use the i386's microcode. Afterwards AMD and Intel concluded an agreement, the details of which remain largely secret, which gave AMD the right to produce and sell microprocessors containing the microcodes of Intel 286, 386, and 486.

But Intel keeps locking AMD processors out of the global market.

VOCABULARY

manufacturer — изготовитель, производитель

integrated circuit — интегральная схема

to locate — располагать в определенном месте; назначать место

supplier — поставщик

x86-compatible processor — процессор совместимый с процессором 8086 (сделанный на базе архитектуры процессора 8086 компании «Интел»)

to found — основывать, учреждать; создавать

defector — перебежчик за границу

СЕО — (главный) исполнительный директор (один из руководителей корпорации, отвечающий за основную часть её текущей деятельности)

Athlon — Атлон (бренд компании АМД, применяемый для 32-битных компьютеров седьмого поколения на основе х86 совместимого процессора)

Opteron — Оптерон (бренд компании АМД, применяемый для 64-битного высокобюджетного процессора восьмого поколения на основе х86 совместимого процессора).

Turion64 — Турион 64 (бренд компании АМД, применяемый для 64-битного процессора восьмого поколения для портативных компьютеров на основе х86 совместимого процессора).

Sempron — Семпрон (бренд компании АМД, применяемый для низкобюджетного 32-битного процессора восьмого поколения на основе ядра Атлон ХР).

Duron — Дурон (бренд компании АМД, применяемый для низкобюджетного 32-битного процессора на основе х86 совместимого процессора).

device — устройство, приспособление; механизм; аппарат, машина, прибор

logic chip — логический чип

to enter — входить, проникать

RAM chip — чип памяти (запоминающее устройство) с произвольной выборкой, ЗУПВ; оперативное запоминающее устройство, ОЗУ

to design — придумывать, разрабатывать; замышлять; проектировать; конструировать

various — различный, разный, разнообразный; разнообразный; разносторонний

design — модель, шаблон; дизайн

to decide — решать(ся), принимать решение, делать выбор

to switch gears — переключать мощности

flash memory — флэш-память

to sign — подписывать(ся), ставить подпись

arrangement — договоренность, соглашение; приведение в порядок; урегулирование; систематизация; монтаж

to cancel — аннулировать, отменять; отказываться (от обязательств, клятв и т. п.)

to refuse — отвергать, отказывать; отклонять; отказываться

to hand over — передавать

to close — утрачивать, лишаться (чего-л./кого-л.); избавиться, отделываться, освобождаться (от чего-л.)

to retire — оставлять, увольнять(ся); уходить в отставку; выходить на заслуженный отдых, на пенсию

to release — выпускать в свет; отпускать, выпускать

to challenge — ставить под вопрос, оспаривать; призывать к рассмотрению

subsequently — впоследствии, позднее, позже, после, потом to side — примкнуть (к кому-л.), быть на чьей-л. стороне (with), поддерживать (кого-л.)

to force — оказывать давление, заставлять, принуждать, вынуждать

violation of contract — нарушение контракта

to deny — отрицать; отвергать; не признавать существование (чего-л.); отказываться, отрекаться

to conclude — завершить, закончить; закрывать, ограничивать, отделять; прийти к соглашению, заключать (сделку, договор, соглашение)

to remain — оставаться; оставаться, пребывать; жить, обитать, пребывать; находиться

to produce — производить, выпускать; вырабатывать; изготовлять; создавать

to lock — зд. закрывать, блокировать

QUESTIONS

What is AMD?
Where is Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. located?
When was AMD founded?
Who founded Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.?
Who is the current president and CEO of AMD?
When did AMD enter the RAM chip business?
When did AMD release the Am386?
When did AMD sign a contract with Intel?
Why were AMD's 386DX-40 and Am386 so popular?
Why was there a dispute between Intel and AMD?
When did AMD's Am486 appear?
When was Intel forced to pay over $1 billion to AMD company in compensation for violation of contract?

IBM

International Business Machines Corporation is headquartered in Armonk, NY, USA. The company manufactures and sells computer hardware, software, and services. It is in operation since 1888. IBM's history dates back decades before the development of electronic computers — before that it developed punched card data processing equipment. It originated as the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corporation, which was incorporated on June 15, 1911 in Binghamton, New York. Thomas Watson Sr., the founder of IBM, became General Manager of CTR in 1914 and President in 1915. In 1917, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company entered the Canadian market under the name of International Business Machines Co., Limited. On February 14, 1924, CTR changed its name to International Business Machines Corporation.

In the 1950s, IBM became a chief contractor for developing computers for the United States Air Force's automated defense systems.

IBM was the largest of the eight major computer companies through the 1960s.

IBM had over 330,000 employees worldwide and revenues of $96 billion in 2004. IBM is the largest information technology company in the world, and one of the few with a continuous history dating back to the 19th century. It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and development laboratories located all over the world, in all segments of computer science and information technology. As of 2005 it employs about 195,000 technical professionals. IBM Research has eight laboratories, all located in the Northern Hemisphere. IBM employees have won five Nobel Prizes.

In 2004, IBM announced the proposed sale of its PC business to Chinese computer maker Lenovo, which is partially owned by the Chinese government, for USD650 million in cash and USD600 million in Lenovo stock. The deal was approved in March 2005, and completed in May 2005.

VOCABULARY

to headquarter — устраивать штаб, штаб-квартиру где-л.

manufacture — производство; изготовление; обработка

hardware — хардвер, «железо» —детали компьютера (платы, монитор и т. д.) в отличие от программного обеспечения

software — компьютерные программы, программное обеспечение, разг. софт

development — развитие, расширение, развертывание, рост; эволюция

to develop — развивать(ся) (from; into)

punched card — перфокарта; перфорированная карта

data processing equipment — оборудование для обработки данных

to originate — давать начало, порождать; создавать; брать начало, происходить, возникать (from, in — от чего-л.; from, with — от кого-л.)

to enter — входить, проникать

chief— ведущий, главный, основной, руководящий, старший (о служебном положении, должности; используется в названиях многих должностных лиц); основной; базисный, важнейший, главный (по своему значению, влиянию; о человеке и предмете)

automated defense systems — автоматизированные системы защиты

revenue — доход; выручка; оборот

continuous — непрерывный; непрекращающийся, непрерываемый; постоянный

to locate — располагать в определенном месте; назначать место (для постройки и т. п.); помещать, размещать

to employ — держать на службе, иметь в штате; предоставлять работу; нанимать; употреблять, применять, использовать (in, on, for)

the Northern Hemisphere — Северное полушарие

to announce — объявлять, давать знать; заявлять; извещать

partially — немного, отчасти, частично, частью

to own — владеть; иметь, обладать, располагать

in cash — наличные

stock — акционерный капитал (joint stock); основной капитал; фонды; доля акций, акции

deal — некоторое количество; сделка, соглашение, договор

to approve — одобрять (что-л. — of)

to complete — завершать, заканчивать, кончать, оканчивать; делать совершенным

QUESTIONS

Where is International Business Machines Corporation headquartered?
When did CTR change its name to International Business Machines Corporation?
Who is the founder of IBM?
When did IBM become a chief contractor for developing computers for the United States Air Force's automated defense systems?
How many employees worldwide worked in the company in 2004?
When was IBM sold to Chinese computer maker Lenovo?

DVD TECHNOLOGY

DVD is sometimes called «Digital Versatile Disc» or «Digital Video Disc ». It is an optical disc storage media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high video and sound quality. DVDs resemble compact discs as their physical dimensions are the same — 12cm in diameter but they are encoded in a different format and at a much higher density, using the Universal Disk Format (UDF) file system.

In the early 1990s two high density optical storage standards were being developed: one was the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by Philips and Sony, and the other was the Super Density Disc (SD), supported by Toshiba, Time-Warner, Matsushita Electric, Hitachi, Mitsubishi Electric, Pioneer, Thomson, and JVC. Later IBM's president, Lou Gerstner, acting as a matchmaker, led an effort to unite the two camps behind a single standard, anticipating a repeat of the costly format war between VHS and Betamax in the 1980s.

Philips and Sony abandoned their MMCD format and agreed upon Toshiba's SD format with two modifications that are both related to the servo tracking technology.

The first DVD players and discs were available in November 1996 in Japan, March 1997 in the United States, 1998 in Europe

and in 1999 in Australia. The first DVD movie appeared in 1996. The movie had the first test for 2.1 surround sound. In 1999 Independence Day was the first movie to introduce 5.1 surround sound.

By the spring of 1999 the price of a DVD player had dropped below the US $300. As a result Wal-Mart began to offer DVD players for sale in its stores.

As of 2006 DVD sales make up the bulk of gross sales and VHS is a slim minority. The price of a DVD player has dropped significantly. Many modern computers are sold with DVD-ROM drives stock.

VOCABULARY

versatile — многоцелевой, универсальный

optical — зрительный, оптический

storage — сохранение, хранение

to include — заключать, включать в себя, содержать в себе (among)

DVD — цифровой видеодиск; универсальный цифровой диск

to resemble — походить, иметь сходство

dimension — размеры, величина; объем; протяжение

diameter — диаметр

to encode — кодировать, шифровать

density — распределение определенного количества чего-л. на единицу площади, объема, длины, и т. д.; напр., в физике — плотность, удельный вес

UDF (the Universal Disk Format) — универсальный формат диска

to develop — развивать(ся) (from; into)

the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD) — мультимедийный компакт-диск (стандарт на CD-ROM большой емкости, предложенный фирмами Sony и Philips Electronics)

to back — поддерживать; подкреплять; финансировать, субсидировать

matchmaker — антрепренер; человек улаживающий спор

effort — усилие, попытка; напряжение

to unite — объединять, соединять; соединяться, объединяться

to anticipate — ожидать, предвидеть; ждать, предвкушать, предчувствовать; ускорять, приближать (наступление чего-л.); предвосхищать, предугадывать, предупреждать

repeat — повторять; повторяться, случаться вновь

VHS — бытовой (кассетный) видеомагнитофон

to abandon — отказываться (от чего-л.), прекращать (что-л., делать что-л.)

to agree — соглашаться (with — с кем-л., to — с чём-л., on — на что-л.)

modification — изменение; видоизменение; модификация, трансформация (действие и результат)

to relate — относиться, иметь отношение, затрагивать; быть связанным; устанавливать связь, определять соотношение; соотносить

servo tracking technology — технология вспомогательного (серво) трекинга

to appear — показываться; появляться

surround sound — многоканальный звук

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать; знакомить (с чем-л.)

to drop — падать; резко опускаться; снижаться, понижаться, уменьшаться, падать; спадать (о цене и т. п.)

to offer — предлагать; делать предложение

store — запас, резерв; запоминающее устройство, накопитель; хранение (данных)

bulk — опт; масса, большое количество; основная масса, большая часть чего-л.

gross sales — оптовые продажи

slim — зд. слабый, скудный, небольшой, незначительный

minority — меньшинство; меньшее число; меньшая часть

DVD-ROM drive — DVD-привод

QUESTIONS

What is DVD?
Do DVDs resemble compact discs?
What file system format is used in a DVD disc?
What is MMCD?
What is SD?
What companies supported high density optical storage standard SD?
What companies supported high density optical storage standard MMCD?
When did the first DVD players and discs become available?
When did the first DVD movie appear?
Why did Wal-Mart begin to offer DVD players for sale in its stores only in 1999?

DVD VIDEO

DVD-video discs require a DVD-drive with a MPEG-2 decoder. DVD movies are encoded using a combination of MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats. Typical data rates for DVD movies range from 3-10 Mbit/s, and the bit rate is usually-adaptive. The video resolution on NTSC discs is 720x480 and on PAL discs is 720x576.

The audio data on a DVD movie can be of the format PCM, DTS, MP2, or Dolby Digital (AC-3). DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content. In many cases, sound tracks in more than one language are present.

DVD Video may also include one or more subtitle tracks in various languages. They are stored as images with transparent background which are overlaid over the video during playback.

DVD Video may contain Chapters for easy navigation.

There are several possible successors to DVD being developed by different consortiums: Sony's Blu-ray Disc, Hitachi/ Toshiba's HD DVD, the Holographic Versatile Disc, and Maxell's holographic disc.

The first generation of holographic media with 300 GB of storage capacity and a 160 Mbit/s transfer rate is scheduled for release in late 2006 by Maxell and its partner, InPhase.

On April 15, 2004, in a co-operation project with TOPPAN Printing Co., the electronic giant Sony Corp. successfully developed the paper disc, a storage medium that is made out of 51 % paper and offers up to 25 GB of storage, about five times more than the standard 4.7 Gb DVD. The disc can be easily cut with scissors and recycled, offering foolproof data security and an environment-friendly storage media.

In 2006 it is not yet clear which technology will win the format war over DVD. HD DVD discs contain less information than Blu-ray discs (15GB vs. 25GB for single layer, and 30GB-50GB for dual layer), but Blu-ray requires changes in manufacturing machinery and techniques.

VOCABULARY

DVD — цифровой видеодиск; универсальный цифровой диск

to require — приказывать, требовать; нуждаться (в чём-л.); требовать (чего-л.)

MPEG-2 — стандарт сжатия движущегося изображения и звука, основанный на ступенчатых режимах кодирования и обеспечивающий несколько качественных уровней воспроизведения — от VHS до HDTV

to encode — кодировать, шифровать

to rate — оценивать, производить оценку, исчислять, определять, устанавливать (among; as); оценивать, расценивать, ценить; считать; рассматривать

to range — выстраивать(ся) в ряд; ставить, располагать в порядке; классифицировать;

adaptive — адаптивный; приспосабливающийся, приноравливающийся к чему-л.

video resolution — видеоразрешение (разрешение видеокартинки)

NTSC — телевизионный стандарт; Национальный комитет по телевизионным стандартам

PAL — телевизионный стандарт PAL (построчное изменение фазы)

РСМ — кодово-импульсная модуляция, импульсно-кодовая модуляция (способ кодирования аналогового сигнала для передачи его в форме цифрового потока с полосой 64 Kbps)

DTS — система передачи данных

МР2 — см. MPEG-2

Dolby Digital — цифровая схема шумоподавления «Долби», система «Долби»

to contain — содержать в себе, включать, иметь в своем составе; вмещать

video content — видеоданные

sound tracks — звуковые дорожки

to include — заключать, включать в себя, содержать в себе (among)

subtitle — субтитр, надпись под изображением (в кино-, телекадре)

transparent — прозрачный, просвечивающий

background — задний план, фон; незаметная позиция

to overlay (прош. вр. —- overlaid; прич. прош. вр. — overlaid) — лежать (на чем-л., над чем-л.); класть сверху (что-л. на что-л.); покрывать (краской и т. п.), накладывать слой (чего-л.); затемнять; затушевывать; маскировать

playback — воспроизведение, проигрывание (звуко- или видеозаписи)

successors — преемник, наследник; правопреемник (to, of)

consortium — консорциум

versatile — многоцелевой, универсальный

holographic — голографический

storage — сохранение, хранение; запоминающее устройство, память (вычислительной машины)

capacity — вместимость, емкость (любая, напр., конденсатора); объем (в частности суммарный объем цилиндров в двигателе внутреннего сгорания)

transfer rate — скорость передачи данных

to schedule — составлять (или вносить в список, опись и т. п.); составлять (или включать в) расписание, график; назначать; намечать; планировать (for — на какое-л. определенное время)

release — релиз, выпуск в свет (фильма, книги, пластинки, продукта и т. п.; также сам выпускаемый объект); пресс-релиз, опубликованный материал; сообщение для печати (см. тж. press-release); демонстрация, публикация, показ

successfully — успешно, с успехом; благополучно

to develop — развивать(ся) (from; into)

to offer — предлагать; делать предложение

scissors — ножницы (тж. a pair of scissors)

to recycle — повторно использовать; возвращать в оборот (отходы производства)

foolproof — букв, «защищенный от дурака»; защищенный от неправильного использования (о технических устройствах), надежный (в указанном смысле); элементарный в обращении; понятный каждому

environment-friendly — экологически чистый

single layer — однослойный

dual layer — двухслойный

to manufacture — производить, выделывать, изготовлять; делать, обрабатывать, перерабатывать

machinery and techniques — зд. производственные мощности, производство, производственная инфраструктура

QUESTIONS

How are DVD movies encoded?
What is a typical range for DVD movies?
What is the DVD video resolution on NTSC discs?
What is the DVD video resolution on PAL discs?
What audio formats on a DVD movie do you know?
How are subtitle tracks stored?
What possible successors to DVD are there?
What company successfully developed the paper disc in 2004?
How much information can Blu-ray discs contain?
How much information can HD DVD discs contain?

DVD DISCS

DVDs are made from a 0.6 mm thick disc of polycarbonate plastic coated with a much thinner reflective aluminum layer. Two such discs are glued together to form a 1.2 mm disc.

A single-layer DVD can store 4.7 gigabytes (Gb), which is around seven times as much a standard CD disc. By employing a red laser at 650 nm, before it was 780 nm, wavelength and a numerical aperture of 0.6 before it was 0.45, the read-out resolution is increased by a factor 1.65. DVD uses a more efficient coding method. As a result, the DVD format is 47 percent more efficient with respect to CD disc.

A DVD can contain simple data, video data and audio data. There are three writing formats: plus, minus and RAM. As to the DVD disc itself, DVD discs may have one or two sides, and one or two layers of data per side; the number of sides and layers determines the disc capacity. So, there are 5 types of DVD discs: DVD-5, DVD-9, DVD-10, DVD-14, DVD-18.

DVD-5 means single sided, single layer disc. It is 4.7 gigabytes (GB) and may contain 4.38 gigabytes (Gb) of information.

DVD-9 means single sided, double layer DVD disc which capacity is 8.5 Gb (7.92 Gb).

DVD-10 means double sided, single layer on both sides DVD disc. It is a 9.4 Gb (8.75 Gb) disc.

DVD-14 means double sided, double layer on one side, single layer on other. It is 13.3 Gb disc which can contain up to 12.3 Gb of information.

DVD-18 offers the highest capacity. It is double sided, double layer on both sides disc with 17.1 Gb and can contain up to 15.9 Gb.

The capacity of a DVD disc can be visually determined by noting the number of data sides, and looking at the data sides of the disc. Double-layered sides are sometimes gold-colored, while single-layered sides are silver-colored, like a CD. One additional way to tell if a DVD contains one or two layers is to look at the centre ring on the underside of the disc. If there are two barcodes, it is a dual layer disc. If there is one barcode, there is only one layer.

The «+» (plus) and «-» are similar technical standards and are partially compatible. As of 2004, both formats are equally popular, with about half of the industry supporting «+», and the other half «-». All DVD readers are supposed to read both formats, though real-world compatibility is around 90% for both formats. There is the third writing format. It is DVD-RAM (RAM — Random Access Memory). This standard is not as popular as « + » or «-».

The data transfer rate of a DVD drive is given in multiples of 1350 kB/s, which means that a drive with 16x speed designation allows data transfer retroflex 1350 = 21600 kB/s(21.09 MB/s). As CD drive speeds are given in multiples of 150 kB/s, one DVD «speed» equals nineCD «speeds,» so an 8x DVD drive should have a data transfer rate similar to that of a 72x CD drive. In physical rotation terms (spins per second), one DVD «speed» equals three CD « speeds,» so an 8x DVD drive has the same rotational speed as 24x CD drive.

VOCABULARY

DVD — цифровой видеодиск; универсальный цифровой диск

thick — толстый; полный

polycarbonate — поликарбонат (сорт оптического пластика, из которого изготавливаются компакт-диски)

to coat — покрывать (краской, фольгой и т. п.)

reflective — отражающий (свет, изображение, звуковые волны); отражательный

to glue — приклеиваться, прилипать, склеиваться

single-layer — однослойный

to store — запоминать; хранить; снабжать, оснащать; наполнять

gigabyte — гигабайт (1024 Мбайт = 2**30 байт)

to employ — употреблять, применять, использовать (in, on, for); использовать, занимать (чье-л. время и т. п.)

wavelength — длина волны

aperture — отверстие; скважина; дыра, дырка, щель

read-out — считывающий

to increase — возрастать, увеличивать(ся); расти; усиливать(ся) (from; to)

efficient — действенный, результативный, эффективный (in)

to contain — содержать в себе, включать, иметь в своем составе; вмещать

RAM — память (запоминающее устройство) с произвольной выборкой — ЗУПВ; оперативное запоминающее устройство — ОЗУ

to determine — определять, устанавливать; детерминировать, обусловливать

double layer — двухслойный

visually — зрительно, визуально; наглядно

to note — замечать, обращать внимание; упоминать, отмечать; делать заметки, записывать

underside — нижняя часть (предмета); дно, низ; оборотная сторона

equally — равно, в равной степени; равным образом, одинаково

to support — поддерживать, подпирать; нести нагрузку; поддерживать; содержать (материально); обеспечивать

compatibility — совместимость, совместность, сочетаемость

DVD-RAM (RAM — Random Access Memory) — DVD-диск многократной записи с произвольным доступом

transfer rate — скорость передачи (данных)

DVD drive — DVD-привод

multiple — составной; со сложной структурой; многократный; множественный, неоднократный, повторяющийся

designation — обозначение, называние, указание; знак, обозначение, имя

to allow — позволять, разрешать; предоставлять, давать возможность, делать возможным; допускать; признавать

rotation — вращение

spin — вращение; верчение, вращение, кружение

QUESTIONS

What materials are used for DVD production?
How much information can a single-layer DVD store?
What efficiency has a DVD format with respect to CD disc?
How many writing formats are there?
What determines a DVD disc capacity?
How many types of DVD disc are there?
What does DVD-5 mean?
What does DVD-9 mean?
What does DVD-10 mean?
What does DVD-14 mean?
What does DVD-18 mean?
How can the capacity of a DVD disc be visually determined?
What is DVD-RAM?
What can you tell about DVD speed comparing with CD speed?

PENTIUM I

The Pentium I is a fifth-generation x86 architecture microprocessor by Intel which first shipped on March 22,1993. It is the successor to the 486 line. The Pentium was originally to be named 80586 or i586, but the name was changed to Pentium presumably because «pent» means «five» because numbers could not be trademarked. So, the-original Pentium microprocessor had the internal code name P5 and has two datapaths (pipelines) that allow it to complete more than one instruction per clock cycle.

The earliest Pentiums were released at the clock speeds of 66 MHz and 60 MHz. The early versions of 60-100 MHz Pentiums had a problem in the floating point unit that, in rare cases, resulted in reduced precision of division operations. Later on 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166, 200, and 233 MHz versions gradually became available. 266 and 300 MHz versions were later released for mobile computing.

Intel has retained the Pentium trademark for naming later generations of processor architectures, which are internally quite different from the Pentium itself: Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Pentium M, and Pentium D.

The Pentium brand is now used for desktop parts, the Celeron brand is used for the parts typically of lower performance and price, and the Xeon brand is used for high-performance parts suitable for servers and workstations.

VOCABULARY

x86 architecture microprocessor — x86-compatible processor — процессор совместимый с процессором 8086 (сделанный на базе архитектуры процессора 8086 компании «Интел »)

to ship — зд. выйти в свет, появиться

successor — преемник, наследник; правопреемник (to, of)

originally — первоначально, по происхождению; исходно, изначально; сначала, поначалу

presumably — предположительно, возможно, вероятно, по-видимому

trademark — фабричное клеймо, фабричная марка, торговая марка

internal — внутренний

to allow — позволять, разрешать

to complete — завершать, заканчивать, кончать, оканчивать; выполнять

clock cycle — тактовая частота (процессора, шины)

to release — выпускать в свет

to result — следовать, происходить в результате, проистекать (from); кончаться, иметь результатом (in)

to reduce precision — уменьшить точность

gradually — исподволь, мало-помалу, понемногу, постепенно

mobile computing — портативные компьютеры

to retain — держать; удерживать, аккумулировать; вмещать; сохранять; удерживать

quite — вполне, совершенно; совсем; полностью; всецело, тотально; довольно; почти, до некоторой степени

performance — характеристика (работы машины и т. п.); эксплуатационные качества; производительность; коэффициент полезного действия

high-performance — высокопроизводительные

suitable — годный, подходящий, пригодный, применимый, соответствующий

workstation — рабочая станция

QUESTIONS

What is the Pentium I?
What company created the Pentium I?
When was the Pentium I introduced?
What model of computer was the predecessor of the Pentium I?
What were the clock speeds of the earliest Pentiums?
What problem did the early versions of 60-100 MHz Pentiums have?
What brand is used for the parts typically of lower performance and price?
What brand is used for desktop parts?
What brand is used for high-performance parts suitable for servers and workstations?

PENTIUM II

The Pentium II is an x86 architecture microprocessor produced Intel and introduced on May 7, 1997. It was based on a modified version of the P6 core first used for the Pentium Pro, but with improved 16-bit performance.

The original Klamath Pentium IIs ran at 233 and 266 MHz, were produced in a 0.35 fabrication process and produced for that time an incredible amount of heat.

A 300 MHz version was released later in 1997. The Deschutes core Pentium IIs which debuted at 333 MHz in January 1998 were produced in a more suitable 0.25 pm fabrication process and ran significantly cooler. During 1998, Pentium IIs running at 266, 300, 350, 400, and 450 MHz were also released. Pentium II-based systems also saw the introduction of the new generation RAM-standard, SDRAM which replaced EDO RAM, and the introduction of the AGP graphics bus.

Unlike previous Intel processors such as the Pentium and Pentium Pro, the Pentium II was packaged in a slot-based form-factor rather than a socket one. This larger package was a compromise allowing Intel to separate the secondary cache from the processor while still keeping it on a closely coupled bus.

A low-end version of the Pentium II — essentially a Pentium II with less or no level 2 cache — was marketed under the name «Celeron». The Pentium II Xeon was a high-end version intended for use on servers.

By early 1999, the Pentium III superseded the Pentium II.

VOCABULARY

x86 architecture microprocessor — процессор совместимый с процессором 8086 (сделанный на базе архитектуры процессора 8086 компании «Интел»)

to produce — производить, выпускать; вырабатывать; изготовлять; создавать

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать; знакомить, представлять

to modify — видоизменять, трансформировать, модифицировать; подправлять, корректировать, вносить поправки

core — ядро (процессора)

improved — улучшенный, усовершенствованный

16-bit performance — работа на базе 16-битного кода

MHz — мегагерц

fabrication process — процесс производства

incredible — маловероятный, невероятный, немыслимый, неправдоподобный; неслыханный, невообразимый, потрясающий

amount — величина, количество

suitable — годный, подходящий, пригодный, применимый, соответствующий

significantly — многозначительно

SDRAM — синхронное динамическое ЗУПВ (работающее одновременно с двумя областями адресов)

to replace — заменять, замещать (by, with — чем/кем-л.); подставлять; вытеснять; занимать чье-л. место

EDO RAM (Extended Data Out RAM) — память с расширенны ми возможностями вывода (с ускоренным доступом и/или с увеличенным временем доступности данных)

AGP — ускоренный графический порт

graphics bus — графическая шина

previous — предыдущий; предшествующий (to); опрометчивый, поспешный, преждевременный

slot-based — слотовая основа

socket — гнездо

compromise — компромисс; соглашение (на основе взаимных уступок)

to allow — позволять, разрешать

to separate — отделять, разделять; разъединять; отсоединять; отделяться, разделяться; разъединяться

cache — кэш, сверхоперативная память

to couple — соединять(ся), связывать(ся); сцеплять; связывать, ассоциировать (with)

low-end — низкобюджетный, дешевый, любительский

essentially — по существу; по существу дела; существенно, существенным образом; в высшей степени; чрезвычайно

Celeron — низкобюджетный процессор, разработанный фирмой «Интел »

Xeon — высокобюджетный процессор, разработанный фирмой «Интел»

high-end — высокобюджетный, мощный, профессиональный, высококачественный; высокого класса; с широкими функциональными возможностями

to intend — намереваться (делать что-л.); планировать (что-л.); предназначать(for)

to supersede — заменять; замещать, смещать; вытеснять; занимать (чье-л.) место

QUESTIONS

What is the Pentium II?
When did the Pentium II appear?
What was the first version of Pentium II?
What was the original clock rate of the Klamath?
When was a 300 MHz version of Pentium II released?
What was the distinctive feature of Pentium II comparing with

the Pentium and Pentium Pro computers?

What is the brand name for a low-end version of the Pentium II?
What is the brand name for a high-end version of the Pentium II?
When was the Pentium II superseded by the Pentium III?

PENTIUM III

The Pentium HI is the sixth generation of x86 architecture microprocessor by Intel, introduced on February 26, 1999. Initial versions were very similar to the earlier Pentium II, the most notable difference being the addition of SSE instructions and the introduction of a controversial serial number which was embedded in the chip during the manufacturing process. As with the Pentium II, there was also a low-end Celeron version and a high-end Xeon version. The Pentium III was eventually superseded by the Pentium 4. An improvement on the Pentium III design is the Pentium M.

The original version of Pentium III was Katmai. It was pretty much the same as the Pentium II using a 0.25 fabrication process, the only differences being the introduction of SSE, and an improved L1 cache controller which was the cause of the minor performance improvements over the latter PIIs. It was first released at speeds of 450 and 500 MHz. Two more versions of 550 MHz and 600 MHz were released in 1999. The Katmai used the same slot based design as the Pentium II.

The second version of Pentium III was Coppermine. It had an integrated full-speed 256 KB L2 cache with lower latency, which improved performance over Katmai. It was built on a 0.18 process. Pentium III Coppermines running at 500, 533, 550, 600, 650, 667, 700, and 733 MHz were first released on October 25, 1999. From December 1999 to May 2000, Intel released Pentium IIIs running at speeds of 750, 800, 850, 866, 900, 933 and 1000 MHz(l GHz).

A 1.13 GHz version was released in mid-2000, but famously recalled because it was not stable enough to compile the Linux kernel. Intel needed at least six months to resolve this problem and released 1.1 GHz and 1.13 GHz versions in 2001.

The third version, Tualatin, was really just a trial for Intel's new 0.13 pm process. Tualatin performed quite well, especially in variations which had 512 KB L2 cache. This version was called the Pentium III-S.

Pentium III Tualatins were released during 2001 and early 2002 at speeds of 1.0, 1.13, 1.2, 1.26, 1.33 and 1.4 GHz. Intel didn't want a repeat of the situation where the performance of a lower priced Celeron rivaled that of the more expensive Pentium III, so Tualatin never ran faster than 1.4 GHz, the introductory clock rate of the Pentium 4. Later on, it was proved that the design was good for at least 1.7 GHz.

VOCABULARY

architecture microprocessor — процессор совместимый с процессором 8086 (сделанный на базе архитектуры процессора 8086 компании «Интел»)

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать; вводить

initial — начальный; исходный, отправной, первоначальный; начинающийся, зарождающийся

similar — подобный (to); похожий, сходный

notable — примечательный, достопримечательный, замечательный (чём-л.); выдающийся, известный

addition — добавление, дополнение, прибавление, присоединение, увеличение

controversial — спорный, сомнительный, поставленный под сомнение; вызывающий спор; дискуссионный

to embed — вводить, внедрять, насаждать

low-end — низкобюджетный, дешевый, любительский

high-end — мощный, профессиональный, высококачественный; высокого класса; с широкими функциональными возможностями

eventually — в конечном счете, в итоге, в конце концов; со временем

to supersede — заменять; замещать, смещать; вытеснять; занимать (чье-л.) место

improvement — улучшение, усовершенствование; исправление; развитие (on, over, upon)

design — модель, шаблон; лежащая в основе схема; композиция

to improve — улучшать(ся); совершенствовать(ся); поправляться), налаживать(ся)

L1 cache — кэш первого уровня (первичная кэш-память, расположенная на одном кристалле с процессором)

cause — причина, основание (для действия, состояния, результата)

minor — незначительный, несущественный, второстепенный;

легкий, несерьезный

performance — исполнение, выполнение; свершение

to release — выпускать в свет

slot — слот; область памяти, занимаемая страницей

to integrate — составлять целое; объединять(ся); укрупнять (into; with)

latency — скрытое состояние; задержка между стимулом и реакцией

famously — здорово, лихо, отлично, превосходно

to recall — отзывать

stable — стойкий; устойчивый; крепкий, прочный

to compile — выбирать информацию, собирать материал (из разных источников); собирать, накапливать

kernel — сердцевина, ядро

to resolve — решать(ся), принимать решение

trial — испытательный, пробный; контрольный

expensive — дорогой, дорогостоящий, ценный

introductory — вводный, вступительный, начальный, предварительный

clock rate — тактовая частота; синхронизирующая частота; частота тактовых импульсов

to prove — доказывать; удостоверять; подтверждать документами; испытывать, пробовать

QUESTIONS

What is the Pentium III?
When did the Pentium III appear?
What are the most notable differences in the Pentium III?
What was the original version of Pentium III?
What was the second version of Pentium III?
What were the main features of the second version of Pentium III?
Why was a 1.13 GHz version recalled?
What was the third version of Pentium III?
When was the third version of Pentium III released?
Why did Tualatin never run faster than 1.4 GHz?
What was the introductory clock rate of the Pentium IV?

PENTIUM IV

The Pentium 4 is a seventh-generation x86 architecture microprocessor produced by Intel and is their first all-new CPU design, called the NetBurst architecture, since the Pentium Pro of 1995. The original Pentium 4, codenamed «Willamette», ran at 1.4 and 1.5 GHz and was released in November 2000.

The design goal of the Pentium 4 was to scale to fast clock speeds, because consumers were beginning to purchase computers based on GHz ratings. To this extent the P4 appears to be a classic example of marketing concerns driving technological development.

Intel stated in their marketing at the launch of the P4 it was an architecture designed to scale to 10 GHz. However, the architecture used in P4 encountered unsolvable thermal problems at 4 GHz. This forced Intel to abandon development of the Pentium 4 in mid-2005 to focus on the cooler running Pentium M, which was repositioned for the desktop computer and small server markets. In retrospect, the Pentium HI core was technologically superior to Pentium 4.

And Willamette, the first Pentium 4, suffered long delays in the design process. At that time, the Willamette was only expected to breach the 1 GHz (1000 MHz) barrier upon its introduction. However, once the Pentium HI was introduced, obviously Intel could not name Willamette as a Pentium II. Because its architecture

was a relatively large departure from the Pentium III, it was named Pentium 4, ending Intel's Roman-Numeral nomenclature system.

April 2001 brought the 1.7 GHz P4, the first one to provide performance clearly superior to Pentium III. July saw 1.6 and 1.8 GHz models and in August 2001, Intel released 1.9 and 2.0 GHz Pentium 4s. In the same month, they released a new chipset that supported much cheaper PC133 SDRAM.

The 2.0 GHz was the first P4 to provide a serious challenge to the rival Athlon Thunderbird, which until then had been unquestionably the fastest x86 CPU on the market.

In October 2001 the Athlon XP regained a clear lead for AMD. but in January 2002 Intel released Pentium 4s with their new Northwood core at 2.0 and 2.2 GHz. A 2.4 GHz P4 was released in April 2002, a 2.53 GHz part in May and a 3.06 GHz Pentium 4 arrived in November.

The 3.06 GHz processor supported Hyper-threading, first appeared in Xeon, enabling multiple threads to be run together by duplicating some parts of the processor in order to let the operating system believe that there are two logical processors. Hyper-Threading was present in all Northwood CPUs, but was disabled in the core in all but the 3.06 GHz model. In April 2003, Intel launched new variants, ranging from 2.4 to 3.0 GHz. The key difference on these new versions was that they all supported Hyper-Threading, and ran their system buses at 800 MHz.

On February 1, 2004, Intel introduced a new core codenamed «Prescott». The core uses a 90pm process. Although a Prescott clocked at the same rate as a Northwood, benchmarks show that a Northwood runs slightly faster than a Prescott in gaming applications. However, with video editing and other multimedia software, the Prescott's extra cache gives it a clear speed advantage over the Northwood. 3.8 GHz was the fastest Prescott-based processor ever mass-produced.

Finally, the thermal problems were so severe, Intel decided to abandon the Prescott architecture altogether, and attempts to roll out a 4 GHz part were abandoned, as a waste of internal resources. Intel released a new Prescott core codenamed «Prescott 2M» by the first quarter of 2005. It features new 64-bit technology. On 14 November 2005, Intel released Prescott 2M processors with VT (Virtualization Technology, codenamed «Wonderpool») enabled. Intel only released two models of this Prescott 2M category: 662 and 672, running at 3.6 and 3.8 GHz, respectively. Intel will release the final version of Pentium 4, codenamed « Cedar Mill» at the first quarter of 2006. Cedar Mill is expected to solve overheat problems of Prescott.

VOCABULARY

to produce — производить, выпускать; вырабатывать; изготовлять; создавать

CPU design — модель центрального процессора

original — начальный, первый; первичный, исходный

to codename — давать кодовое название, наименование

to release — выпускать в свет

goal — задача, цель; место назначения

to scale — определять масштаб, сводить к определенному масштабу; представлять в определенном масштабе; устанавливать пропорции, соотношения

to fast — зд. ускорять

clock speed — тактовая частота

consumer — потребитель

to purchase — покупать, закупать (приобретать что-л. за деньги)

extent — мера, степень, рамки, пределы; размер, величина

to appear — показываться; появляться

concern — забота, беспокойство; интерес, участие, заинтересованное отношение

to state — заявлять, утверждать; констатировать; формулировать; излагать

launch — запуск; начало (каких-л. действий); выпуск

to encounter — (неожиданно) встретить(ся), столкнуться (с кем-л./чём-л.); наталкиваться (на трудности и т. п.), столкнуться (с трудностями)

unsolvable — неразрешимый

to force — оказывать давление, заставлять, принуждать, вынуждать

to abandon — отказываться (от чего-л.), прекращать (что-л., делать)

development — развитие, расширение, развертывание, рост; эволюция

to focus — сосредоточивать, обращать (внимание и т. п.); сосредоточиваться; концентрироваться (на — on, upon)

desktop computer — настольный (стационарный) компьютер

core — ядро (процессора)

superior — лучший, превосходный, высшего качества; превосходящий, больший

to suffer — страдать; испытывать, претерпевать

delay — задержка, проволочка, приостановка, промедление

to expect — ждать, ожидать (for); надеяться, предполагать

to breach — пробивать брешь, проламывать (стену, оборону и т. п.)

obviously — явно, заметно; явно, ясно, очевидно, понятно

departure — отступление, отклонение, отход (for; from)

to provide — снабжать; доставлять; обеспечивать (чем-л. материальным) (with); давать, предоставлять; обеспечивать; обусловливать, предусматривать

performance — исполнение, выполнение; свершение; действие

chipset — микропроцессорный набор, набор микросхем

SDRAM — синхронное динамическое ЗУПВ (работающее одновременно с двумя областями адресов)

challenge — вызов; сложная задача, проблема

rival — соперник; конкурент; соперничающий; конкурирующий

to regain — обретать снова; возвращать себе; восстанавливать

lead — лидерство; руководство; инициатива

to arrive — зд. появиться, выйти в свет

Hyper-threading — технология Hyper-threading

Xeon — высокобюджетный процессор, разработанный фирмой «Интел»

to enable — включать, запускать в работу (какое-л. устройство)

the operating system — операционная система

believe — зд. считать

to launch — запускать (спутник, ракету и т. п.); выпускать

to range — выстраивать(ся) в ряд; ставить, располагать в порядке; классифицировать

benchmark — производительность системы, определяемая в целях сравнения

multimedia software — мультимедийное программное обеспечение

extra cache — дополнительная кэш, сверхоперативная память

advantage — преимущество (of, over — над); выгода, польза

severe — строгий, суровый; требовательный

attempt — попытка; проба; опыт

to roll out — выкатывать (наружу); раскатывать; производить (товары) в большом количестве

to feature — являться характерной чертой, отличительным признаком; отличать, характеризовать; содержать в себе как отличительный, особенный элемент, свойство (особенно о товарах)

64-bit technology — 64-битная технология

respectively — в указанном порядке; соответственно, соответствующим образом

quarter — зд. квартал; четверть, четвертая часть

to solve — решать, разрешать (проблему и т. п.); находить выход; выяснять, объяснять

QUESTIONS

What is the Pentium 4?
What was the original Pentium 4 codename?
What was the clock speed of the original Pentium 4?
When was the first Pentium IV released?
What was the design goal of the Pentium 4?
What statement was made by Intel while launching the P4?
Why did the P4 microprocessors never overcome the 4 GHz barrier?
Why did Willamette, the first Pentium 4, suffer long delays in the design process?
When was the 1.7 GHz P4 produced?
When was 2.0 GHz Pentium 4 released?
What was the main feature of the 2.0 GHz P4?
When did a 3.06 GHz Pentium 4 arrive?
When were the versions of P4 supporting Hyper-Threading technology launched by Intel?
What is Hyper Threading technology?
When «Prescott» P4 was introduced?
Why did Intel make decision to abandon the development of Prescott core architecture?
What was the fastest Intel processor ever mass-produced?
What was the clock speed of the fastest Intel processor?
When was «Prescott 2M» core introduced?

PENTIUM PRO

The Pentium Pro is a sixth-generation x86 architecture microprocessor by Intel originally intended to replace the original Pentium in a full range of applications, but later reduced to a narrower role as a server and high-end desktop chip. It was introduced using an enormous rectangular Socket 8 form factor in November 1995. Intel has discontinued it in favour of the newer high-end Xeon processor lines.

Despite the name, the Pentium Pro is actually quite different from Intel's earlier Pentium processor, being based on the then-new P6 core which in a modified form would later be used for the Pentium II, Pentium III and Pentium M.

The Pentium Pro had a 256K-512K cache at introduction, with a 1 MB version introduced later. All versions of the chip were expensive, those with more than 256K being particularly so.

Following discussions of future product planning with Microsoft, Intel made the design decision to optimise the Pentium Pro for 32-bit code. In consequence it performed poorly on 16-bit code, and when Windows 95 turned out to be largely 16-bit, the Pro was not well positioned to compete in the desktop market. Introduced as a high-end server and workstation chip for the 32-bit Windows NT and UNIX operating systems, it was then destined to stay within that market rather than migrate onto the home desktop.

Intel filled the gap with an improvement to the older Pentium Classic design called the Pentium MMX.

The Pentium Pro clock speeds were 150,166, 200 MHz with a 60 or 66 MHz external bus clock.

The Pentium Pro was succeeded by the Pentium II, which was essentially a cost-reduced and re-branded Pentium Pro and enhanced 16-bit code performance.

VOCABULARY

originally — первоначально, по происхождению; исходно, изначально; сначала, поначалу

to intend — намереваться (делать что-л.); предназначать (for)

to replace — заменять, замещать (by, with — чем-л./кем-л.); подставлять; вытеснять; занимать чье-л. место

range — ассортимент, сортамент; номенклатура

application — применение, использование, употребление; приложение; применимость; прикладная задача, приложение

to reduce — сокращать, преобразовывать; ослаблять, понижать, сокращать, уменьшать

high-end desktop — мощный, профессиональный, высококачественный; высокого класса; с широкими функциональными возможностями настольный компьютер

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать

enormous — громадный; гигантский, обширный, огромный

rectangular — прямоугольный

socket — сокет, гнездо (для подключение процессора)

to discontinue — прекращать(ся), останавливать(ся), прерываться); приостанавливать (какую-л. деятельность)

in favour of — в пользу (чего-л./кого-л.)

Xeon — высокобюджетный процессор, разработанный фирмой «Интел»

despite — несмотря на, вопреки чему-л.

quite — вполне, совершенно; совсем; полностью; всецело, тотально; довольно; почти, до некоторой степени

different — непохожий, другой, отличный (from, to, than) (по внутренней структуре, качествам и т.д.); необыкновенный, особенный

core — ядро (процессора)

to modify — видоизменять, трансформировать, модифицировать; подправлять, корректировать, вносить поправки

cache — кэш, сверхоперативная память

MB — мегабайт, Мб

expensive — дорогой, дорогостоящий, ценный

particularly — особенно, особым образом; детально, подробно

design — модель, шаблон; лежащая в основе схема; композиция

decision — решение (сделать что-л.); урегулирование

to optimise — оптимизировать

32-bit code — 32-битный код

consequence — (по)следствие, результат (чего-л.); важность, значимость

to perform — исполнять, выполнять (обещание, приказание и т. п.); делать, совершать; делать, выполнять (какую-л. работу, задание и т. д.)

to turn out — зд. стать, сделаться; оказаться

to position — класть, помещать, ставить; располагать в определенном месте

to compete — состязаться, соперничать, конкурировать

desktop market — рынок настольных компьютеров

high-end server — мощный, профессиональный, высококачественный; высокого класса; с широкими функциональными возможностями сервер

workstation — рабочая станция

to destine — предопределять, предрешать (судьбу и т. п.); предназначать, планировать, предполагать, иметь намерение (чаще в пассиве)

to migrate — зд. перемещаться

to fill — занимать, заполнять (свободное время какими-л. делами)

gap — пролом, брешь

improvement — улучшение, усовершенствование; исправление; развитие (on,over, upon)

clock speed — тактовая частота

external bus clock — тактовая частота внешней шины

to succeed — следовать за чем-л./кем-л.; сменять; наследовать, быть преемником

essentially — по существу; по существу дела; существенно, существенным образом; в высшей, в высокой степени; чрезвычайно

to enhance — улучшать (особ. качество, значимость, ценность, важность, привлекательность чего-л.)

performance — исполнение, выполнение; свершение; действие

QUESTIONS

What is the Pentium Pro?
When was the Pentium Pro introduced to the public first?
What was the main purpose of Pentium Pro creation?
Did the Pentium Pro have cache?
Why did Intel make the design decision to optimize the Pentium Pro for 32-bit code?
What were the Pentium Pro clock speeds?
What Intel's brand succeeded the Pentium Pro?

PENTIUM D

The Pentium D is a series of microprocessors developed in Intel's Research & Development Centers in Israel, and was first introduced to the public in spring, 2005. A Pentium D chip consists of two Pentium 4 Prescott dies in a single package.

The Pentium D was the first announced multicore CPU along with its more expensive twin, the Pentium Extreme Edition. Intel released the first Pentium D products codenamed «Smithfield» on May 26, 2005, with clock speeds of 2.8, 3.0, and 3.2 GHz. The chips carried model numbers of 820, 830 and 840 respectively.

Smithfield is made on a 90pm process with 1MB of L2 cache per core.

The only motherboards guaranteed to work with the Pentium D and Extreme Edition are those based on the 945 and 955 series of chipsets.

As with a multiprocessor PC, the Pentium D provides significant performance improvement only with applications that have been written specifically for multiple CPUs or cores — such as most 3D rendering programs and video encoders.

The next generation of Pentium D processors will be based on the Presler core. Presler will use the same chipsets as Smithfield does, and will be produced using the 65 technology.

VOCABULARY

to develop — развивать(ся) (from; into)

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать

to consist — состоять из (of), составлять; заключаться (in — в чем-л.)

die — матрица

single — один; единственный; единый; однократный, одноразовый

to announce — объявлять, давать знать; заявлять; извещать

multicore CPU — многоядерный ЦПУ

expensive — дорогой, дорогостоящий, ценный

twin — близнецы; двойник, копия

to release — выпуск

to codename — давать кодовое название, наименование

respectively — в указанном порядке; соответственно, соответствующим образом

L2 cache — кэш второго уровня (для ПК на базе всех Intel-совместимых процессоров), внешний кэш; вторичный кэш

motherboard — материнская плата; объединительная плата; системная плата

to guarantee — давать гарантию (on, for — на что-л., for — на какой-то срок); гарантировать

to provide — снабжать; доставлять; обеспечивать (чем-л. материальным) (with)

significant — значительный, важный, существенный; знаменательный

performance — исполнение, выполнение; свершение

improvement — улучшение, усовершенствование; исправление;

развитие(on,over, upon) applications — приложения

rendering programs — программа рендеринга (стереопоказа)

encoder — кодирующее устройство, кодер; шифратор

QUESTIONS

What is the Pentium D?
When was the Pentium D introduced to the public?
What was the first announced multicore CPU?
What were the only motherboards guaranteed to work with the
Pentium D and Extreme Edition?
What will the next generation of Pentium D processors be?

CELERON

A Celeron is any of a large number of different budget microprocessors produced by Intel and marketed as a budget CPU line. The Celeron family complements Intel's higher-performance and more expensive Pentium CPUs family. Introduced in August 1998, the first Celeron was based on the Pentium II core. Later versions were based on the Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Pentium-M.

As a product concept, the Celeron was introduced in response to Intel's loss of the low-end market, in particular to Cyrix's 6x86 and AMD's K6 because Intel's existing low-end product, the venerable Pentium MMX, was no longer performance competitive. The first Celeron codenamed Covington was essentially a 266MHz Pentium II manufactured without any secondary cache at all. Although clocked at 266 or 300MHz substantially higher than the old Pentium MMX, the cache less Celerons were a good deal slower than the parts they were designed to replace. Substantial numbers were sold on first release, largely on the strength of the Intel name, but the Celeron quickly achieved a poor reputation both in the trade press and among computer professionals.

The initial market interest faded rapidly in the face of its poor performance and with sales at a very low level, Intel felt obliged to develop a substantially faster replacement as soon as possible.

Intel was well aware of the poor reputation of the original Celeron and determined not to make the same mistake twice. As the result the new Mendocino core Celeron was a good performer from the outset. Indeed, most industry analysts regarded the first Mendocino-based Celerons as too successful. Its performance was sufficiently high to not only compete strongly with rival parts, but also to attract buyers away from Intel's high-profit flagship, the Pentium II.

The key to the new Celeron's performance was cache. Where the old model had no secondary cache at all, the new part included 128KB of L2 cache as part of the chip itself.

The first Mendocino-core Celeron was clocked at 300MHz but was almost twice as fast as the old cache less Celeron at the same clock speed. The Mendocino also came in a mobile variant, with speeds 266, 300, 333, 366, 400, 433, and 466 MHz.

The next generation Celeron was the Coppermine-128 sometimes known as the Celeron II. It was a derivative of Intel's latest high-end part, the «Coppermine» Pentium III and was released in March 2000. Like the Mendocino, the Coppermine-128 used 128 KB of on-chip L2 cache and was restricted to a 66 MHz bus speed. It was identical to the Pentium III except for the smaller secondary cache and the much slower bus.

The next series of Celerons were based on Pentium III Tualatin core. They were nicknamed Tualeron. The series began with 1000 and 1100 MHz parts and the line continued with 1200,1300, and 1400 MHz chips.

Tualerons were identical to their fully-fledged Pentium HI sibling, except that Tualerons used a 100 MHz bus rather than the 133 MHz bus of the Pentium III processors.

The Celeron D processor is based on the Prescott core and has a larger 256 KB cache. It also features a 533 MHz bus.

Their clock speed range was from 2.13 GHz in the model 310 to 3.2 GHz in the model 350.

VOCABULARY

budget — бюджет; финансовая смета

to produce — производить, выпускать; вырабатывать; изготовлять; создавать

complement — дополнение; совершенность, совершенство; множество, комплект

higher-performance — более высокая производительность

expensive — дорогой, дорогостоящий, ценный

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать; знакомить (с чем-л.)

core — ядро (процессор)

in response to — в ответ на

loss — потеря, утрата; убыток, ущерб

low-end — зд. низкобюджетный

particular — особенный; особенный, особый, специфический; исключительный; заслуживающий особого внимания

to exist — существовать; иметься в природе (by, on), жить; быть, появляться, возникать

venerable — многоуважаемый, почтенный, уважаемый

competitive — соперничающий, конкурентный, конкурентоспособный

to codename — давать кодовое название, наименование

to manufacture — производить, выделывать, изготовлять; делать, обрабатывать, перерабатывать

secondary cache — вторичная кэш-память, кэш второго уровня (кэш-память, расположенная не внутри микропроцессора, а на системной или какой-л. другой плате)

to clock — работать с (такой-то частотой)

substantially — по существу; в основном; большей частью; главным образом; существенно, в значительной степени

to replace — заменять, замещать (by, with — чем/кем-л.); подставлять

substantial — действительный, материальный, реальный, реально существующий; основной, главный; важный, значимый, значительный, немаловажный, существенный, большой

release — релиз, выпуск в свет (фильма, книги, пластинки, продукта и т. п.; также сам выпускаемый объект)

strength — сила; достоинство, сильная сторона; интенсивность, мощность

to achieve — добиваться, достигать; доводить до конца, выполнять

initial — начальный; исходный, отправной, первоначальный; начинающийся, зарождающийся

to fade — постепенно исчезать, расплываться, растворяться; ослабевать, постепенно затихать, замирать (о звуках); постепенно уменьшать силу звука или четкость изображения

performance — производительность; исполнение, выполнение; свершение

to aware — осознавать

to determine — определять, устанавливать (с помощью расчетов, рассуждений, проведения расследования и т. п.); решать, разрешать

mistake — ошибаться; неправильно понимать; неправильно интерпретировать; заблуждаться

twice — дважды; во второй раз; вдвое

outset — начало; начинание

successful — благополучный, счастливый, удачный, успешный; преуспевающий, удачливый

to compete — состязаться, соперничать, конкурировать

rival — соперник; конкурент; конкурирующий

to attract — привлекать, притягивать; пленять, покорять, прельщать

high-profit — высокоприбыльный

flagship — флагманский корабль, флагман

fast — быстрый, скорый

generation — поколение

derivative — производный, выведенный, вторичный; деривативный

to restrict — ограничивать (в пределах чего-л.)

identical — тот же самый (об одном предмете); такой же, одинаковый, идентичный (to; with)

except — исключая, кроме, за исключением; за исключением того что; если не; кроме как в случаях, когда

to nickname — уменьшительное имя; прозвище, кличка; давать прозвище

sibling — брат или сестра; потомство одних родителей

QUESTIONS

What is Celeron?
What company produces Celeron?
What was the clock rate of the first Celeron?
Why did Intel introduce low-end Celeron?
What features did the Mendocino core Celeron have?
What was the first Mendocino-core Celeron?
What was the second generation of Celeron?
What was the key to the new Celeron's performance?
When was the «Coppermine» Pentium III released?
What clock speeds did «Tualeron» Celeron have?
What were the main differences between the Pentium III «Tualeron» and Celeron «Tualeron»?
What is the Celeron D processor?

ATHLON 64

The Athlon 64 codenamed «ClawHammer», «Newcastle», «Winchester», «Venice», and «San Diego» represents AMD's entry into the consumer 64-bit microprocessor market. It was firstly released on September 23, 2003. This processor is based on the AMD64 architecture. It is AMD's first eighth generation processor core for desktop and mobile computers. Turion 64 is an example of AMD processor for mobile computers. It intended to compete with Intel's Pentium M. It is equipped with 512 or 1024 KB of L2 cache.

There are three variants: Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, and the dual-core Athlon 64 X2.

The Athlon 64 X2 is a processor consisting of two Athlon 64 cores joined together on one die.

The main benefit of dual core processors like the X2 is their ability to process more software «threads» at the same time.

Such processors are efficient with programs written with multiple threads and capable of utilizing dual cores include many music and video encoding applications, and especially professional rendering programs.

Having two cores, the Athlon 64 X2 has an increased number of transistors. The 1 MB L2 cache X2 processor has 233.2 million transistors here as its Athlon 64 counterpart has only 114 million transistors.

VOCABULARY

to codename — давать кодовое название, наименование

to represent — представлять (as — в виде кого-л./чего-л.); представлять (кого-л.; as — как, в качестве кого-л.); показывать (себя) (as — в каком-л. свете); выдавать (себя) (as — за кого-л.)

entry — вход, въезд; проход; вход; вступление; вхождение

consumer — потребитель

64-bit microprocessor market — рынок 64-битных микропроцессоров

to release — выпускать в свет; публиковать, опубликовывать; выпускать

processor core — ядро процессора

desktop computer — настольный компьютер

mobile computer — портативный компьютер

Turion 64 — Турион 64 (бренд компании АМД, применяемый для 64-битного процессора восьмого поколения, для портативных компьютеров на основе х86 совместимого процессора)

to intend — намереваться (делать что-л.); предназначать (for)

to compete — состязаться, соперничать, конкурировать

to equip — снаряжать; экипировать; оснащать, снабжать; оборудовать (for; with)

KB — килобайт (1024 байта)

L2 cache — кэш второго уровня (для ПК на базе всех интел-совместимых процессоров), внешний кэш; вторичный кэш

dual-core — двухядерный

to consist — заключаться (in — в чём-л.); состоять, составлять из (of)

to join — соединять, объединять, связывать; присоединяться (к кому-л.)

die — матрица

main — главный; важнейший, основной; абсолютный, полнейший

benefit — выгода; польза; прибыль; преимущество

ability — способность, возможность делать что-л. (at, in; to + +инфинитив.)

to process — обрабатывать информацию

software — компьютерные программы, программное обеспечение; разг. софт

efficient — действенный, результативный, эффективный (in); рациональный, целесообразный

multiple — разнообразный, разнородный; многочисленный, различный

thread — зд. нить, трэд в мультизадачных средах: подпроцесс, запускаемый другим процессом в адресном пространстве этого (запускающего) процесса

capable — способный; одаренный, талантливый, восприимчивый

to include — заключать, включать в себя, содержать в себе (among); включать, присоединять (among, in)

application — приложение; применение

rendering program — программа рендеринга/стереопоказа

transistor — транзистор, кристаллический триод

QUESTIONS

What models of the Athlon 64 do you know?
When was the Athlon 64 released firstly?
What AMD eighth generation processor core for desktop and mobile computers do you know?
What is Turion 64?
How many variants of Athlon 64 are there?
What is the main benefit of dual core processors?

OPTERON

The AMD Opteron is the first eighth-generation processor with K8 core, and the first of AMD's AMD64 processors, released on April 22, 2003. It is intended to compete in the server market, particularly in the same segment as the Intel Xeon processor.

In June 2004, it was the tenth fastest supercomputer in the world, dropping to 42-nd in November 2005. On the November 2005 list, 10% of the 500 supercomputer installations were x64 Opteron-based systems, while about 17 % were Intel x64 Xeon-based.

In multi-processor systems where there are more than one Opteron on a single motherboard, the CPUs communicate using the Direct Connect Architecture over high-speed HyperTransport links. So, each CPU can access the main memory of another processor. The Opteron approach to multi-processing is not the same as standard symmetric multiprocessing as instead of having one bank of memory for all CPUs, each CPU has its own memory. As of early 2005, most retail motherboards offer one or two CPU sockets.

The Opteron CPU directly supports up to an 8-way configuration, which can be found in mid-level servers. Enterprise-level servers use additional and expensive routing chips to support more than 8 CPUs per box.

In May of 2005, AMD introduced its first «Multi-Core» Opteron CPU's. At the present time, the term «Multi-Core» at AMD in practice means «dual-core», because each physical Opteron chip actually contains two separate processor cores. This effectively doubles the compute-power. One socket can now deliver the performance of two processors; two sockets can deliver the performance of four processors, and so on. Since motherboard costs go up dramatically as the number of CPU sockets increases, multicore CPU's now allow much higher performing systems to be built with more affordable motherboards.

VOCABULARY

AMD — от Advanced Micro Devices — компания AMD — производитель микропроцессоров и принадлежащая ей торговая марка

processor — процессор

core — ядро (процессора)

AMD64 — 64-битная архитектура микропроцессора AMD64

to release — выпускать в свет

to intend — намереваться (делать что-л.); планировать (что-л.); предназначать (for)

to compete — состязаться, соперничать, конкурировать

particularly — особенно, особым образом; очень, чрезвычайно; в высокой степени

Xeon — высокобюджетный процессор, разработанный фирмой «Интел»

to drop — падать; резко опускаться, обрываться

installations — установки, оборудование

single — один; единственный; единый; однократный, одноразовый

motherboard — материнская плата; системная плата

CPU — центральный процессор

link — соединение

to access — доступ

main — главный; важнейший, основной; абсолютный, полнейший

approach — приближение; наступление; подход, подъезд, подступ; подступы, подходы (к позициям противника); подход (к решению проблемы, задачи и т. п.)

multi-processing — многопроцессорная обработка данных

instead — вместо; взамен

own — свой, собственный; оригинальный, собственный

retail — розничный; продающий в розницу

to offer — предлагать; делать предложение

CPU socket — гнездо ЦПУ

to support — поддерживать, подпирать; нести нагрузку; поддерживать; содержать (материально); обеспечивать

configuration — конфигурация; очертание; форма; целостная форма, структура

enterprise-level — промышленный

additional — добавочный, дополнительный

expensive — дорогой, дорогостоящий, ценный

routing chips — чипы-рутеры

to mean — намереваться, иметь в виду; значить, означать

to contain — содержать в себе, включать, иметь в своем составе; вмещать

separate — отдельный; обособленный; особый, специальный; индивидуальный, самостоятельный; независимый

effectively — действенно; эффективно

to double — удваивать

to deliver — доставлять, разносить (почту и т. п.); посылать, выпускать; метать

dramatically — эффектно, ярко, заметно, впечатляюще; разительно, поразительно, значительно, сильно

to increase — возрастать, увеличивать(ся); расти; усиливать(ся)

to allow — позволять, разрешать

affordable — возможный; допустимый; по средствам

QUESTIONS

What is the AMD Opteron?
When was the AMD Opteron released?
What was the main intention of AMD'S Opteron creation?
Where is the Direct Connect Architecture used?
What is the main feature of Opteron approach to multi-processing?
When did AMD introduce its first «Multi-Core» Opteron CPU's?

SEMPRON

Sempron is AMD's newest low-end CPU, replacing the Duron processor and competing against Intel's Celeron D processor.

AMD coined the name from the Latin «simper», which means always/everyday.

The first Semprons were based on the Athlon XP architecture using the Thoroughbred/Thorton core. These models were equipped with the Socket-A interface, a 256 KB L2-Cache, and 166 MHz bus (FSB 333). Later, AMD introduced the Sempron 3300+, based on the Barton core with 512 KB L2-cache, because the production of all Socket-A Semprons was ceased by AMD.

The current production models with Paris / Palermo core are based on the architecture of the Athlon 64. Differences with Athlon64 processors include a reduced cache size, either 128 or 256KB L2, the HyperTransport bus, and AMD's «NXbit» feature.

In the second half of 2005, AMD began shipments of the Sempron 64. The Sempron 64 will replace the older non-AMD64 Sempron in AMD's Sempron product-line.

VOCABULARY

low-end CPU — низкобюджетный, недорогой, любительский

to replace — заменять, замещать (by, with — чем-л./кем-л.); подставлять; вытеснять; занимать чье-л. место

to compete — состязаться, соперничать, конкурировать

to coin — измышлять, выдумывать, замышлять; создавать неологизмы (новые слова и выражения)

to base — базировать, обосновывать; основывать, строить

core — ядро (процессора)

to equip — снаряжать; экипировать; оснащать, снабжать; оборудовать (for; with)

socket — гнездо, сокет

interface — устройство сопряжения; связующее звено, интерфейс (между человеком и ЭВМ или машиной; between; with); стык, область контакта, взаимодействия

L2-Cache — кэш второго уровня (для ПК на базе всех Интел-совместимых процессоров), внешний кэш; вторичный кэш

bus — шина

to introduce — внедрять, учреждать; вводить

to cease — переставать (делать что-л.), прекращать(ся) (from); бросать привычку; приостанавливать, положить конец, останавливать (часто с герундием)

current — текущий, данный, современный

to include — заключать, включать в себя, содержать в себе

(among) to reduce — ослаблять, понижать, сокращать, уменьшать

feature — особенность, характерная черта; деталь, признак, свойство; свойства, особенности, общий вид; функция, функциональность, опция

QUESTIONS

What is Sempron?
What was the main purpose of Sempron production?
What does the name Sempron mean?
What main features does Sempron possess?
What are the differences between Sempron and Athlon 64?
When was the production of the Sempron 64 started?

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A bit of history

2 November 1988 Robert Morris younger (Robert Morris), graduate student of informatics faculty of Cornwall University (USA) infected a great amount of computers, connected to Internet network. This network unites machines of university centres, private companies and governmental agents, including National Aeronautics Space Administration, as well as some military scientific centres and labs.

Network worm has struck 6200 machines that formed 7,3% computers to network, and has shown, that UNIX not okay too. Amongst damaged were NASA, LosAlamos National Lab, exploratory centre VMS USA, California Technology Institute, and Wisconsin University (200 from 300 systems). Spread on networks ApraNet, MilNet, Science Internet, NSF Net it practically has removed these network from building. According to "Wall Street Journal", virus has infiltrated networks in Europe and Australia, where there were also registered events of blocking the computers.

Here are some recalls of the event participants:

Symptom: hundreds or thousands of jobs start running on a UNIX system bringing response to zero.

Systems attacked: UNIX systems, 4.3BSD UNIX & variants (e.g.: SUNs) any sendmail compiled with debug has this problem. This virus is spreading very quickly over the MilNet. Within the past 4 hours, it has hit >10 sites across the country, both Arpanet and MilNet sites. Well over 50 sites have been hit. Most of these are "major" sites and gateways.

Method: Someone has written a program that uses a hole in SMTP Sendmail utility. This utility can send a message into another program.

Apparently what the attacker did was this: he or she connected to sendmail (i.e., telnet victim.machine 25), issued the appropriate debug command, and had a small C program compiled. (We have it. Big deal.) This program took as an argument a host number, and copied two programs – one ending in VAX.OS and the other ending in SunOS – and tried to load and execute them. In those cases where the load and execution succeeded, the worm did two things (at least): spawn a lot of shells that did nothing but clog the process table and burn CPU cycles; look in two places – the password file and the internet services file – for other sites it could connect to (this is hearsay, but I don't doubt it for a minute). It used both individual .host files (which it found using the password file), and any other remote hosts it could locate which it had a chance of connecting to. It may have done more; one of our machines had a changed superuser password, but because of other factors we're not sure this worm did it.

All of Vaxen and some of Suns here were infected with the virus. The virus forks repeated copies of itself as it tries to spread itself, and the load averages on the infected machines skyrocketed. In fact, it got to the point that some of the machines ran out of swap space and kernel table entries, preventing login to even see what was going on!

The virus also "cleans" up after itself. If you reboot an infected machine (or it crashes), the /tmp directory is normally cleaned up on reboot. The other incriminating files were already deleted by the virus itself.

4 November the author of the virus – Morris – come to FBI headquarters in Washington on his own. FBI has imposed a prohibition on all material relating to the Morris virus.

22 January 1989 a court of jurors has acknowledged Morris guilty. If denunciatory verdict had been approved without modification, Morris would have been sentenced to 5 years of prison and 250 000 dollars of fine. However Morris' attorney Thomas Guidoboni immediately has lodged a protest and has directed all papers to the Circuit Court with the petition to decline the decision of court... Finally Morris was sentenced to 3 months of prisons and fine of 270 thousand dollars, but in addition Cornwall University carried a heavy loss, having excluded Morris from its members. Author then had to take part in liquidation of its own creation.

What is a computer virus?

It is an executable code able to reproduce itself. Viruses are an area of pure programming, and, unlike other computer programs, carry intellectual functions on protection from being found and destroyed. They have to fight for survival in complex conditions of conflicting computer systems. That's why they evolve as if they were alive.

Yes, viruses seem to be the only alive organisms in the computer environment, and yet another their main goal is survival. That is why they may have complex crypting/decrypting engines, which is indeed a sort of a standard for computer viruses nowadays, in order to carry out processes of duplicating, adaptation and disguise

It is necessary to differentiate between reproducing programs and Trojan horses. Reproducing programs will not necessarily harm your system because they are aimed at producing as many copies (or somewhat-copies) of their own as possible by means of so-called agent programs or without their help. In the later case they are referred to as "worms".

Meanwhile Trojan horses are programs aimed at causing harm or damage to PC's. Certainly it's a usual practice, when they are part of "tech-organism", but they have completely different functions.

That is an important point. Destructive actions are not an integral part of the virus by default. However virus-writers allow presence of destructive mechanisms as an active protection from finding and destroying their creatures, as well as a response to the attitude of society to viruses and their authors.

As you see, there are different types of viruses, and they have already been separated into classes and categories. For instance: dangerous, harmless, and very dangerous. No destruction means a harmless one, tricks with system halts means a dangerous one, and finally with a devastating destruction means a very dangerous virus.

But viruses are famous not only for their destructive actions, but also for their special effects, which are almost impossible to classify. Some virus-writers suggest the following: funny, very funny and sad or melancholy (keeps silence and infects). But one should remember that special effects must occur only after a certain number of contaminations. Users should also be given a chance to restrict execution of destructive actions, such as deleting files, formatting hard disks. Thereby virus can be considered to be a useful program, keeping a check on system changes and preventing any surprises such as of deletion of files or wiping out hard disks.

It sounds quite heretical to say such words about viruses, which are usually considered to be a disaster. The less person understands in programming and virology, the greater influence will have on him possibility of being infected with a virus. Thus, let's consider creators of viruses as the best source.

Who writes computer viruses?

They are lone wolves or programmers groups.

In spite of the fact that a lot of people think, that to write a computer virus is a hardship, it is no exactly so. Using special programs called "Virus creators" even beginners in computer world can build their own viruses, which will be a strain of a certain major virus. This is precisely the case with notorious virus "Anna Curnikova", which is actually a worm. The aim of creation of viruses in such way is pretty obvious: the author wants to become well known all over the world and to show his powers.

Somehow, the results of the attempt can be very sad (see a bit of history), only real professionals can go famous and stay uncaught. A good example is Dark Avenger. Yes, and it's yet another custom of participants of "the scene" – to take terrifying monikers (nicknames).

To write something really new and remarkable programmer should have some extra knowledge and skills, for example:

good strategic thinking and intuition – releasing a virus and its descendants live their own independent life in nearly unpredictable conditions. Therefore the author must anticipate a lot of things;

splendid knowledge of language of the Assembler^ⁱ and the operating system he writes for – the more there are mistakes in the virus the quicker its will be caught;
attention to details and a skill to solve the most varied tactical questions – one won't write a compact, satisfactory working program without this abilities;
a high professional discipline in order to join preceding points together.

The aims they pursue together may differ from that of a single virus writer, although they usually also try to become as famous as possible. But in the same time they may render help to beginning programmers in the field of viruses and spread commented sources of viruses and virus algorithm descriptions.

One can't say that all of the group members write viruses in Assembler. Actually, you don't have to know any computer language or write any program code to become a member or a friend of the group. But programming in Assembler is preferred, Pascal, C++ and other high level languages are considered to be humiliating. It does make sense since programs compiled in Assembler are much smaller (0.5-5 kb) and therefore more robust. On the other hand Assembler is quite difficult to understand especially for beginners. One should think in the way computer does: all commands are send directly to the central processing unit of PC.

There are computer virus groups all over the world, few being more successful than others. It may be pretty hard to get in contact with them since they are quite typical representatives of computer underground world as well as (free)wares groups. Sometimes, however, creating viruses can become a respectable occupation, bringing constant income. After all, no one but the author of the virus can bring valuable information on the way it should be treated and cured.

To whose advantage computer viruses are written?

Copyleft (cl) is distribution of programs without registering the software, i.e. using a cracked copy. The practice is widely used in the territory of former USSR even by medium and big companies, to say nothing of ordinary users. This software is stolen, which involves criminal responsibility (see legal notice). One of the general valuables of our culture is a generosity, and you can't do anything about it. But at least freeware lovers should know that proceeding with the practice could be risky. That's the first use of computer viruses – as a sort of compensation to software developers.

In the very same way writing viruses usually does not bring profits to the author. At least when the authors of a virus and a cure to it are different persons. The situation is quite different when they are not, especially if the person manages to hide the fact of the double-dealing. And that is the second advantage of computer viruses.

Yes, developers of antiviral software gain money from selling their remedy to a new widely hyped by the mass media virus. Agitation can grow so strong that all and everyone dash to buy an antiviral protection against even a most harmless virus. The ordinal behaviour of share indexes in stock exchanges while a computer virus epidemic is to fall. Somehow, the shares of such companies as Symantec (which is famous for its Norton Antivirus) will soar up to the sky.

The tendency is especially significant in the world of emerging New Economy. This fancy word means an economy, based on computer services as the engine of the development. The system takes place in the United States. That is why we hardly ever hear the names of Dow Jones and Standard & Poor's in the mass media nowadays. Their place is occupied by NASDAQ Composite index, based on the National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations system. The index is responsible for the performance of high-tech companies, the base of the New Economy.

We can't say for sure, but maybe in the nearest future the index will be influenced more by computers themselves, than brokers and dealers in the world stock exchanges. IBM Corporation has recently presented its new invention – an automated broker, which is indeed a mainframe (a very big computer) with specialised software. It is a descendant of mainframe DeepBlue, well known for its skills in chess field. Unfortunately, it seems that bad times have come for the whole economy of the USA, which also means problems for NASDAQ.

Nevertheless the initiative of IBM should certainly be greeted. Automated brokers seem to understand the volatility of indexes in a much quicker and rational way than human beings. There is an only drawback to eliminate – the problem of artificial intellect. Machine can't think as a human.

Maybe computer viruses could be of any use here too. After all, the flights to the Moon become a simple effect of inventing the new ways of civil population extermination during the Second World War (ballistic rockets). A wish to kill people did a fantastic daydream become reality within fifty years. The first computing machine was actively used while the first atomic bomb development. So sometimes even very bad, much more dangerous than viruses (name at least one person being victim of a cruel computer virus), can highly assist to the progress and bring a greater profit.

A legal notice. Penal Code of Russian Federation

1. Illegitimate access to a law-protected computer information, i.e. information on the machine carrier, in electronic-computing machine (PC), PC system or its network, if it causes a destruction, blocking, modification or copying of information, breach of work PC, PC systems or its network, –

is punished by fine in the size from two to five hundred minimum sizes of labour payment, or in the size of salary/other profit of the convicted for a period from two to five months, or by corrective works for a period from six months to one year, or by deprivation of liberty for a term up to two years.

2. Same deed, performed by a group of persons on the preliminary collusion or by an organised group or a person using their official position, as well as having access to PC, PC system or to its network, –

is punished by fine in the size from five to eight hundred minimum sizes of labour payment, or in the size of salary/other profit of the convicted for a period from five to eight months, or by corrective works for a period from one to two years, or by arrest for a period from three to six months, or by deprivation of liberty for a term up to two years.

1. Making the programs for PC or a contributing the changes to exist programs, undoubtedly bringing about unauthorised deleting, blocking, modification, or copying information, breaking of PC functionality, PC systems or its network, as well as use or spreading of such programs or machine carriers with such programs –is punished by deprivation of liberty for a term up to three years with the fine in the amount between two and five hundred minimum amounts of labour payment, or in the amount of salary/other profit of the convicted for a period from two five months.

2. The same deeds having caused on indiscretion heavy consequences, – are punished by the deprivation of liberty for a term from three to seven years.

Synopsis

The history of computer viruses has begun recently, but it has already become legendary. Almost everyone knows a few awesome fables about these creatures, but hardy anyone understands what computer virus is.

Computer virus is an executable code able to reproduce itself. Viruses are an area of pure programming, and, unlike other computer programs, carry intellectual functions on protection from being found and destroyed. They have to fight for survival in complex conditions of conflicting computer systems.

Viruses seem to be the only alive organisms in the computer environment, and yet another their main goal is survival. That is why they may have complex crypting/decrypting engines, which is indeed a sort of a standard for computer viruses nowadays, in order to carry out processes of duplicating, adaptation and disguise

Viruses are written by lone wolves or programmers groups.

Using special programs called "Virus creators" even beginners in computer world can build their own viruses. The aim of creation of viruses in such way is pretty obvious: the author wants to become well known all over the world and to show his powers.

The results of the attempt can be very sad, only real professionals can go famous and stay uncaught. To write something really new and remarkable programmer should have some extra knowledge and skills.

A computer virus group is an informal non-profit organisation, uniting programmers–authors of viruses regardless of their qualifications. Everyone can become a member of the club, if he creates viruses, studies them for the reason of creation and spreading. You don't have to know any computer language or write any program code to become a member or a friend of the group. Programming in Assembler is preferred, Pascal, C++ and other high level languages are considered to be humiliating

Developers of antiviral software gain money from selling their remedy to a new widely hyped by the mass media virus. Agitation can grow so strong that all and everyone dash to buy an antiviral protection against even a most harmless virus. The ordinal behaviour of share indexes in stock exchanges while a computer virus epidemic is to fall. Somehow, the shares of high-tech companies producing antiviral software will soar up to the sky.

An epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease has overwhelmed Europe in these days (March 15, 2001). It seems that a vast economic crisis is breaking out in America. World finances make their best to escape the worst.

A break-through in the sphere of artificial intellect development could prevent NASDAQ from complete falling down. The help may come from an unexpected side...

But don't forget that creation, use and spreading harmful programs for PC is a criminal offence, as well as using cracked versions of programs. Our penal code establishes a punishment up to seven years of jail.

And be aware that computer viruses came for a long time, unless forever.

201

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