Модальный глагол must

1. Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
You must do this work. Ты должен сделать эту работу. I have to do this work. Я вынуждена сделать эту работу.	I had to do this work. Я была вынуждена сде-лать эту работу.	I’ll have to do this work. Я буду вынуждена сде-лать эту работу.

Примечания:

5. После модального глагола must используется инфинитив без частицы to.

6. To have to – эквивалент модального глагола must.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает необходимость, обязательность совершения действия:	He must do this work in time. Он должен сделать эту работу в срок. Отсутствие необходимости в совершении действия выражается с помощью need not: Must I go there? Yes, you must. No, you needn’t.
2. Выражает команду, настоятельную просьбу или запрет:	You must leave the room at once. Ты должен сейчас же выйти из комнаты.
3. Выражает предположение или вероятность:	He must be waiting for us. Он, должно быть (наверняка), ждет нас.

Модальные глаголы should и ought to

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает моральный долг:	He ought to behave well. He should behave well. Он должен вести себя хорошо.
2. Выражает совет (чаще используется should):	You should be careful. Вам следует быть осторожным.
3. Выражает упрек:	You should have done this work. Тебе следовало бы сделать эту работу.

МОДАЛЬНОЕ ВЫРАЖЕНИЕ TO BE + INFINITIVE

USAGE	EXAMPLES
Используется для выражения договора или соглашения (часть плана):	We were to meet after the lecture. Мы должны были встретиться после лекции. You are to present this paper at the end of the term. Вы должны представить доклад в конце семестра.

EXERCISES

1. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He can install this equipment.

He could install this equipment.

He was able to install this equipment.

1. She can translate this English article. 2. He can’t finish this work in time. 3. Can they compile programs? 4. Nobody can do it better.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He can install this equipment.

He will be able to install this equipment.

1. He can take part in the competition. 2. They can make a good report. 3. I can’t buy this book. 4. Can you understand it?

2. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Numbers can be multiplied in any order. 2. Fractions cannot be added if they have no common denominator. 3. Will you be able to solve this problem? 4. They could have taken their examination yesterday. 5. Computers are able to store information in binary patterns. 6. We shall be able to examine this apparatus tomorrow. 7. You could have asked him to help you in your calculations. 8. Can it be true? 9. Can he know programming well? 10. He can’t have read this book very quickly. 11. Can she still be speaking to the dean? 12. Can he have succeeded in solving all the problems? 13. Lines of text can be rearranged on the screen or sent to the printer. 14. Can you install this device?

3. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He may be present at the meeting.

He might be present at the meeting.

He was allowed to be present at the meeting.

1. He may use my computer. 2. You may go for a walk. 3. We may put off the meeting till tomorrow. 4. You may come in.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He may be present at the meeting.

He will be allowed to be present at the meeting.

1. He may speak to her. 2. I may join them. 3. I may rewrite my test. 4. He may delay the meeting with his advisor.

4. Translate into Russian.

1. May I use these diagrams? 2. They may have worked in the laboratory yesterday. 3. The instrument may have been improved because it has become better. 4. They were allowed to take these mathematical magazines home. 5. He may study at the University. 6. He may not have heard the news that’s why he looks as if nothing had happened. 7. May I ask you to explain this rule once more? 8. He may ring me up in the evening. 9. He may have rung me up in the evening.

5. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He must go there.

He had to go there.

1. She must translate this English article. 2. He must speak to her. 3. The students must to write this test again. 4. They must stay at home.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He must go there.

He will have to go there.

1. He must take part in the discussion. 2. He must learn the new words. 3. Must you speak to him? 4. I must listen to him.

6. Translate into Russian.

1. You’ll have to repeat the experiment. 2. He must have worked hard at his English. 3. It must have taken him much time to prepare for the exam. 4. I could find nothing on mathematical logic in these books and I had to look through a lot of scientific magazines. 5. You will have to work hard to finish the work in time. 6. You must turn this fraction into a mixed number. 7. We had to perform long computations to check the answer. 8. The results must be available in some way to the user. 9. Most data must eventually be stored on disk for later use.

7. Translate into Russian.

1. You should consult a specialist before you take a decision. 2. You should have tested the device more carefully. 3. You should have been more careful with this instrument. 4. She ought to have known this rule better. 5. They should have been examined the machine again. 6. Our laboratory should be provided with all necessary instruments. 7. You ought to be careful with electrical appliances. 8. You are to be in time. 9. You were to translate this article from English into Russian using a dictionary. 10. We are to meet at 2 p.m.

8. Translate the text into English.

ОПТИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЬЮТЕР

С 1970 года стало очевидным (apparent), что существует возможность (possibility) для создания (construction) вычислительного устройства (device), в котором сигналы способны передаваться лучами лазерной радиации, а не электрическим током (by beams of laser radiation rather than electric currents). Есть мощный стимул (powerful incentive), чтобы разработать оптический компьютер (to work out an optical computer). Он может работать быстрее, чем электронный компьютер. При создании оптического компьютера должны быть использованы разнообразные схемы (various circuits). Многие из элементов, нужные для создания интегрированной оптической схемы (needed to make an integrated optical circuit), конструкторы уже демонстрировали.

TEXT 1

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

Computer programming is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions.

The phase in which the system’s computer programs are written is called the development phase. During this phase programmers are to write lists of instructions that will be followed by the central processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program must be complete and in an appropriate order. Any data used by a program has to be described so that compiler knows how to store and retrieve it.

In order to avoid errors in programming logic plans should be developed. There are two common techniques for planning the logic of a program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowcharting is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, therefore, a “picture” of the logical steps to be performed by the computer. The second technique for planning program logic is called pseudocode. Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program instructions. It is less time-consuming for the professional programmer than flowcharting.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them.

1. process (n.), (v.)

2. specific (adj.)

3. appropriate (adj.)

4. error (n.)

5. technique (n.)

6. pseudocode (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. cовокупность закодированных программ

2. решать особые задачи

3. выполнять особые функции

4. компьютерные программы

5. стадия разработки

6. список (перечень) инструкций

7. центральный процессор

8. необходимая (требуемая) последовательность

9. сохранять и извлекать

10. для того, чтобы избежать ошибок

11. построение блок-схемы

12. наглядное представление

13. заранее заданные символы

14. затратный по времени

3. Read and translate the text.

4. Match A and B

A

1. Computer programming

2. A development phase

3. A logic plan

4. A flowcharting

5. Pseudocode

B

1. … is an imitation of actual program instructions.

2. … is a period of time during which the computer programs are being written.

3. … is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions.

4. … is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic.

5. … is a sequence of instructions.

5. Finish up the sentences.

1. The author starts by the definition of computer programming. According to this definition… .

2. Then the author defines a development phase. It is… .

3. During this phase as the author writes a programmer should develop a logic plan which can be defined as… .

4. As to the logic plans they are … and … .

5. A flowcharting is … .

6. Pseudocode is… .

6. Give a brief summary of the text.

Expressions to be used:

1. The text is devoted to… .

2. The text deals with… .

3. The text is concerned with… .

4. The text informs on (about) … .

TEXT 2

PROGRAM ERRORS

A computer program may run from just a few instructions to many millions of instructions, as in a program for a word processor or a web browser. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second and rarely make a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take years to write, and due to the complexity such programs may contain errors.

Errors in computer programs are called “bugs”. Bugs may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases they may cause the program to “hang” – become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes. Sometimes bugs are made for malicious intent to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a program's proper execution. Bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them.

1. processor (n.)

2. execute (v.)

3. execution (n.)

4. rarely (adv.)

5. error (n.)

6. benign (adj.)

7. affect (v.)

8. subtle (adj.)

9. keystroke (n.)

10. malicious( adj.)

11. disrupt (v.)

12. oversight (n.)

2. Read and translate the text.

3. Finish up the sentences.

1. Bugs are … .

2. They may be benign and malicious.

3. Benign bugs… .

4. Malicious bugs… .

4. Give a brief summary of the text.

Expressions to be used:

1. The text under consideration is devoted to… .

2. The text under consideration deals with… .

3. The text under consideration is concerned with… .

4. The text under consideration informs on (about) … .

5. The text under consideration touches upon the problem of … .