World_Religions

– The Koran is not a book in the ordinary sense, it is an expression of …

will.

–Returning from a battle, the Prophet commented, “We are back from the minor jihad to the … jihad”, referring to conquering one’s moods and passions.

–Even obedience to government, … as it is in Islam, may become a crime if the government disobeys God.

–Individuals, societies and governments should all be … to the will of

God.

–The Koran, the … book of Muslims, contains guiding principles, which allow a man to live and die decently if he seeks inspiration from it.

–Zakat or … almsgiving is prescribed by God on those Muslims, who posses enough means to distribute a certain percentage of their annual savings or capital in goods or money among the poor and needy.

Part II

Task 1. Restore the omitted parts of the text using the word given in brackets.

(shrine, worldwide, former, prophet, worship, the Prophet, observance, orthodox, human, the pilgrimage, prescribed, fasting, had, codified, known, split, teachings)

Islam

The monotheistic religion founded by the (1)…… Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century A.D., which incorporates elements of Judaic and Christian belief, is now the professed faith of nearly one thousand million people

(2)…… .

The Muslim performs the prescribed acts of (3)…… and strives to fulfil good works within the group. The “Pillars of Islam” include profession of the faith in a (4)…… form, (5)…… of ritual prayer (five obligatory prayer sequences each day as well as non – obligatory prayers), giving alms to the poor,

(6)…… during the ninth month of the Muslim year, Ramadan, and performing

(7)…… to Mecca. These ritual observances, as well as a code governing social behaviour, were given to Muhammad as a series of revelations, (8)…… in the Koran and supplemented by the deeds and discourse of the (9)…… . Muhammad is seen as the Seal of the Prophets, building upon and perfecting the examples and (10)…… of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Modern Muslims are divided into (11)…… Sunnities, the majority of followers of Islam, and Shi’ites who concentrate mainly in Iran and Iraq.

There were some 65 million Muslims in the (12)…… USSR, one of the largest Muslim populations in the world. The great majority are Sunnites, but

there are some 5 million Shi’ites in Azerbaijan and a few thousand Ismailas, a (13)…… group of Shi’ite Muslim sect, in Tajikistan. About 60 percent of the Muslims inhabit Central Asia, 20 percent Transcaucasia and Northern Caucasus, 20 percent the Volga Region and Siberia.

Baha’ism. This religion was founded by the Persian Mirza Husain Ali, (14)…… as Baha’u’ulla (“glory of god”), in the second part of the 19th century. It developed from the teaching of the prophet Bab (1820–1850) who preached in Persia until Islamic leaders (15)…… him executed. Mirza Husain Ali (1817–1892) succeeded him and founded Baha’I, proclaiming himself a manifistation of God. The Baha’I faith is based on belief in (16)…… brotherhood and promotes peace and racial justice. It has world – wide following. The seat of the governing body is in Haifa in Israel, not far from the golden domed (17)…… of the Bab.

Task 2. Make up 15 statements about this text to agree or disagree with them. Work in pairs.

Task 3. Render from Russian into English.

Text 1

Уже в начальный период существования мусульманской общины сложилось представление о пяти важнейших положениях вероучения. Это исповедание веры (шахада), молитва (салат), пост (саум), налог в пользу неимущих (закат) и паломничество (хадж). Шахада – словесное свиде- тельство, удостоверение веры, выражаемое фразой “Нет Бога, кроме Ал- лаха, и Мухаммад – посланник Аллаха”. Шахада утверждает, что мусуль- манин должен поклоняться только Аллаху и повиноваться всему, что предписано Мухаммадом от имени Аллаха. Каноническая молитва, салат, совершается по строго определенному ритуалу, который сложился при жизни Пророка. В зависимости от времени суток каждая молитва включа- ет два–четыре цикла поз и движений, сопровождаемых произнесением ус- тановленных формул. Коллективная молитва предпочтительней индиви- дуальной, и в пятницу полуденную молитву необходимо совершать в ме- чети. Третье предписание ислама – пост, обязательный для всех совер- шеннолетних мусульман в течение месяца рамадан (девятый месяц лунно- го календаря). Пост был установлен Пророком Мухаммадом в 624 году. Он состоит не в воздержании от некоторых видов пищи, как во многих других религиях, а в полном отказе от еды, питья и любых удовольствий в светлое время суток. От поста освобождаются путешественники, воины во время битв и походов, пленные, больные, немощные, беременные и кор- мящие женщины и вообще все те, кому пост может принести вред. Закат, налог в пользу нуждающихся мусульман, – обязательная милостыня, ко-

торая “очищает”, дает тем, кто платит налог, моральное право пользовать- ся богатством, благоприобретенным имуществом. Хадж – паломничество в Мекку – хотя бы раз в жизни должен совершить каждый мусульманин.

Text 2

Основоположник Ислама Мухаммад – реальное историческое лицо. Он призвал отказаться от поклонения идолам и обратиться к Аллаху. Имя Аллаха является лишь одним из обозначений Бога, истинного же Его име- ни не знает никто из живущих. Мухаммад объявил, что других богов про- сто не существует, а верующие в них будут наказаны Аллахом. В мире всё совершается по воле Аллаха. Он сотворил мир, и он положит ему конец. Тогда умершие воскреснут и будут приведены к Аллаху на суд. С каждого спросится по его делам, и всем воздается сполна. Праведники навечно по- селятся в райских садах, а грешников ждут адские муки. Коран – священ- ная книга мусульман, запись пророческих откровений, произнесенных Мухаммадом между 610 и 632 гг. Коран содержит 114 сур разной величи- ны. Коран является основой ислама, ибо устанавливает религиозные обря- ды, правовые и моральные нормы, жизненный уклад и правила поведения для миллионов мусульман. Наряду с Кораном руководством для всей му- сульманской общины и каждого мусульманина в решении насущных про- блем общественной и личной жизни является Сунна (буквально – “обра- зец”, “пример”). В первую очередь это свод текстов, описывающих жизнь Мухаммада, его слова и дела, а в широком смысле – сборник благих обы- чаев, традиционных установлении, дополняющих Коран и почитаемый наравне с ним как источник сведений о том, какое поведение или мнение является богоугодным, правоверным. Обучение Сунне – важная часть ре- лигиозного воспитания и образования, и знание Сунны и следование ей – один из главных критериев авторитетности предводителей верующих. По-

скольку Коран давал ответы далеко не на все вопросы и к тому же в нем встречались противоречия, требующие разъяснений и дополнений, то по- лучить их можно было из воспоминаний ближайших сподвижников Про- рока об аналогичных случаях. Но живых свидетелей с годами становилось все меньше, и приходилось довольствоваться сведениями, полученными от тех, кто слышал то или иное предание из уст людей, близких к Проро- ку. Хасиды собирали и записывали их. Именно своды хасидов составили со временем Священное предание Ислама – Сунну.

В раннем исламе не было четкого различия между вероисповедаль- ными и правовыми установлениями. Смерть Мухаммада вызвала среди мусульман ожесточенные споры о принципах духовной и светской власти.

Прелюдией открытого раскола стало выступление недовольных воинов из частей, квартировавших в Египте, против третьего праведного халифа

Умана ибн Аффана. После его смерти община разделилась на враждую- щие группировки, каждая из которых стремилась придать своим полити- ческим интересам религиозную окраску. Разногласия по вопросу передачи верховной власти породили течения шиитов, суннитов и хариджитов уже в VII веке. Позже внутри движения шиитов и из среды суннитов сформи- ровались течения. Большинство течений к настоящему времени практиче- ски утратили свое значение. Особняком стоят ордена суфиев, поскольку суфий – это не только принадлежность к тому или иному направлению, сколько состояние души человека, посвятившего жизнь поискам Бога в своем сердце.

Part III

Texts to be read and translated

Islam

Major world religion belonging to the Semitic family; it was promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century A.D. The Arabic term islam, literally “surrender”, illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islam

–that the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islam) accepts “surrender to the will of Allah (Arabic: God)”. Allah is viewed as the sole God

–creator, sustainer, and restorer of the world. The will of Allah, to which man

must submit, is made known through the sacred scriptures, the Qur’an (Koran), which Allah revealed to his messenger, Muhammad. In Islam Muhammad is considered the last of a series of prophets (including Adam, Noah, Jesus, and others), and his message simultaneously consummates and abrogates the “revelations” attributed to earlier prophets.

Retaining its emphasis on an uncompromising monotheism and a strict adherence to certain essential religious practices, the religion taught by Muhammad to a small group of followers spread rapidly through the Middle East to Africa, Europe, the Indian subcontinent, the Malay Peninsula and China. Although many sectarian movements have arisen within Islam, all Muslims are bound by a common faith and a sense of belonging to a single community.

The foundations of Islam

The legacy of Muhammad

From the very beginning of Islam, Muhammad had inculcated a sense of brotherhood and a bond of faith among his followers, both of which helped to develop among them a feeling of close relationship that was accentuated by their experiences of persecution as a nascent community in Mecca. The conspicuous socioeconomic content of Islamic religious practices cemented this bond of faith. In A.D. 622, when the Prophet fled to Medina, his preaching was soon accepted, and the community-state of Islam emerged. During this early pe-

riod, Islam acquired its characteristic ethos as a religion uniting in itself both the spiritual and temporal aspects of life and seeking to regulate not only the individual’s relationship to God (through his conscience) but human relationships in a social setting as well. Thus, there is not only an Islamic religious institution but also an Islamic law, state, and other institutions governing society. Not until the 20th century were the religious (private) and the secular (public) distinguished by some Muslim thinkers and separated formally, as in Turkey.

This dual religious and social character of Islam, expressing itself in one way as a religious community commissioned by God to bring its own value system to the world through the jihad (“holy war” or “holy struggle”), explains the astonishing success of the early generations of Muslims. Within a century after the Prophet’s death in A.D. 632, they had brought a large part of the globe – from Spain across Central Asia to India – under a new Arab Muslim empire.

The period of Islamic conquests and empire building marks the first phase of the expansion of Islam as a religion. Islam’s essential egalitarianism within the community of the faithful and its official discrimination against the followers of other religions won rapid converts. Jews and Christians were assigned a special status as communities possessing scriptures and called the “people of the Book” and, therefore, were allowed religious autonomy. They were, however, required to pay a per capita tax called jizyah, as opposed to pagans, who were required to either accept Islam or die. The same status of the “people of the Book” was later extended to Zoroastrians and Hindus, but many “people of the Book” joined Islam in order to escape the disability of the jizyah. A much more massive expansion of Islam after the 12th century was inaugurated by the Sufis (Muslim mystics), who were mainly responsible for the spread of Islam in India, Central Asia, Turkey, and sub-Saharan Africa (see below).

Besides the jihad and Sufi missionary activity, another factor in the spread of Islam was the far-ranging influence of Muslim traders, who not only introduced Islam quite early to the Indian east coast and South India but who proved as well to be the main catalytic agents in converting people to Islam in Indonesia, Malaya, and China. Islam was introduced to Indonesia in the 14th century, hardly having time to consolidate itself there politically before coming under Dutch colonial domination.

The vast variety of races and cultures embraced by has produced important internal differences. All segments of Muslim society, however, are bound by a common faith and a sense of belonging to a single community. With the loss of political power during the period of Western colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries, the concept of the Islamic community, instead of weakening, became stronger. The faith of Islam helped various Muslim peoples in their struggle to gain political freedom in the mid 20th century and the unity of Islam contributed to later political solidarity.

Sources of Islamic doctrinal and social views

Islamic doctrine, law, and thinking in general are based upon four sources, or fundamental principles (usul): (1) the Qur’an, (2) the sunnah (“traditions”),

(3) ijma’ (“consensus”), and (4) ijtihad (“individual thought”).

The Qur’an (literally, Reading, or Recitation) is regarded as the Word, or Speech, of God delivered to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. Divided into 114 surahs (chapters) of unequal length, it is the fundamental source of Islamic teaching. The surahs revealed at Mecca during the earliest part of Muhammad’s career are concerned with ethical and spiritual teachings and the Day of Judgment. The surahs revealed at Medina at a later period in the career of the Prophet are concerned with social legislation and the politico-moral principles for constituting and ordering the community. Sunnah was used by pre-Islamic Arabs to denote their tribal or common law; in Islam it came to mean the example of the Prophet; i.e. his words and deeds as recorded in compilations known as Hadith.

Hadith (a Report, or collection of sayings attributed to the Prophet) provide the written documentation of the Prophet’s word and deeds. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century A.H. (9th century A.D.) came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islam, the Sunnah. Another large group, the Shi’ah, has its own Hadith.

The doctrine of ijma, or consensus, was introduced in the 2nd century AH (8th century A.D.) in order to standardize legal theory and practice and to overcome individual and regional differences of opinion. Though conceived as a “consensus of scholars”, in actual practice ijma’ was a more fundamental operative factor. From the 3rd century AH ijma’ has amounted to a principle of rigidity in thinking; points on which consensus was reached in practice were considered closed and further substantial questioning of them prohibited. Accepted interpretations of the Qur’an and the actual content of the sunnah all rest finally on the ijma’.

Ijtihad, meaning “to endeavor” or “to exert effort”, was required to find the legal or doctrinal solution to a new problem. In the early period of Islam, because ijtihad took the form of individual opinion, there was a wealth of conflicting and chaotic opinions. In the 2nd century AH ijtihad was replaced by giyas (reasoning by strict analogy), a formal procedure of deduction based on the texts of the Qur’an and the Hadith. The transformation of ijma’ into a conservative mechanism and the acceptance of a definitive body of Hadith virtually closed the “gate of ijtihad”. Nevertheless, certain outstanding Muslim thinkers continued to claim the right of new ijtihad for themselves, and reformers of the 18th and 19th centuries, because of modern influences, have caused this principle to once more receive wider acceptance.

Sacred places and days

The most sacred place for Muslims is the Ka’bah sanctuary at Mecca, the object of the annual pilgrimage. It is much more than a mosque; it is believed to be the place where the heavenly bliss and power touches the earth directly. According to Muslim tradition, the Ka’bah was built by Abraham. The Prophet’s mosque in Medina is the next in sanctity. Jerusalem follows in third place in sanctity as the first qiblah (i.e. direction in which the Muslims offered prayers at first, before the qiblah was changed to the Ka’bah) and as the place from where Muhammad, according to tradition, made his ascent to heaven. For the Shi’ah, Karbala’ in Iraq and Meshed in Iran (where Imam ‘Ali ar-Ria is buried) constitute places of special veneration where the Shi’ah make pilgrimages.

The mosque

The general religious life of the Muslims is centered around the mosque, and in the days of the Prophet and early caliphs the mosque was, indeed, the center of all community life. Small mosques are usually supervised by the imam (one who administers the prayer service) himself, although sometimes also a muezzin is appointed. In larger mosques, where Friday prayers are offered, a khatib (one who gives the khutbah, or sermon) is appointed for Friday service. Many large mosques also function as religious schools and colleges. Mosque officials are appointed by the government in most countries. In some countries

– e.g. Pakistan – most mosques are private and are run by the local community, although some of the larger ones are being increasingly taken over by the government departments of awqaf.

Holy days

The Muslim calendar (based on the lunar year) dates from the emigration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina in A.D. 622. The two festive days in the year are the ‘ids, Id al-Fitr celebrating the end of the month of Ramaan and the other, ‘Id al-Aha (the feast of sacrifice), marking the end of the pilgrimage. Because of the crowds, ‘id prayers are offered either in very large mosques or on specially consecrated grounds. Other sacred times include the “night of determination” (believed to be the night in which God makes decisions about the destiny of individuals and the world as a whole) and the night of the ascension of the Prophet to heaven. The Shi’ah celebrate the 10th of Muharram (the first month of the Muslim year) to mark the day of the martyrdom of Husayn. The Muslim masses also celebrate the death anniversaries of various saints in a ceremony called ‘urs (literally, “nuptial ceremony”). The saints, far from dying, are believed to reach the zenith of their spiritual life on this occasion.

Doctrines of the Qur’an

God

The doctrine about God in the Qur’an is rigorously monotheistic: God is one and unique; he has no partner and no equal. Trinitarianism, the Christian belief that God is three persons in one substance, is vigorously repudiated. Muslims believe that there are no intermediaries between God and the creation that he brought into being by his sheer command: “Be”. Although his presence is believed to be everywhere, he does not inhere in anything. He is the sole Creator and sustainer of the universe, wherein every creature bears witness to his unity and lordship. But he is also just and merciful: his justice ensures order in his creation, in which nothing is believed to be out of place, and his mercy is unbounded and encompasses everything. His creating and ordering the universe is viewed as the act of prime mercy for which all things sing his glories. The God of the Qur’an, described as majestic and sovereign, is also a personal God; he is viewed as being nearer to man than man’s jugular vein, and, whenever a person in need or distress calls him, he responds. Above all, he is the God of guidance and shows everything, particularly man, the right way, “the straight path”.

This picture of God – wherein the attributes of power, justice, and mercy interpenetrate – is related to the Judeo-Christian tradition, whence it is derived with certain modifications, and also to the concepts of pagan Arabia, to which it provided an effective answer. The pagan Arabs believed in a blind and inexorable fate over which man had no control. For this powerful but insensible fate the Qur’an substituted a powerful but provident and merciful God. The Qur’an carried through its uncompromising monotheism by rejecting all forms of idolatry and eliminating all gods and divinities that the Arabs worshipped in their sanctuaries, the most prominent of which was Ka’bah sanctuary in Mecca itself.

Prophecy

Prophets are men specially elected by God to be his messengers. Prophet hood is indivisible, and the Qur’an requires recognition of all prophets as such without discrimination. Yet they are not all equal, some of them being particularly outstanding in qualities of steadfastness and patience under trial. Abraham, Noah, Moses, and Jesus were such great prophets. As vindication of the truth of their mission, God often vests them with miracles. Abraham was saved from fire, Noah from the deluge, and Moses from the Pharaoh. Not only was Jesus born from the Virgin Mary, but God also saved him from crucifixion at the hands of the Jews. The conviction that God’s messengers are ultimately vindicated and saved is an integral part of the Qur’an doctrine.

All prophets are human and never part of divinity: they are simply recipients of revelation from God. God never speaks directly to a human: he either sends an angel messenger to him or makes him hear a voice or inspires him. Muhammad is accepted as the last prophet in this series and its greatest member, for in him all the messages of earlier prophets were consummated. He had

no miracles except the Qur’an, the like of which no human can produce. (Soon after the Prophet’s death, however, a plethora of miracles was attributed to him by Muslims.) The angel Gabriel brought the Qur’an down to the Prophet’s “heart”. Gabriel is represented by the Qur’an as a spirit, but the Prophet could sometimes see and hear him. According to early traditions, the Prophet’s revelations occurred in a state of trance when his normal consciousness was in abeyance. This state was accompanied by heavy sweating. The Qur’an itself makes it clear that the revelations brought with them a sense of extraordinary weight: “If we were to send this Qur’an down on a mountain, you would see it split asunder out of fear of God”.

UNIT FIVE

OTHER RELIGIONS

Part I

Hinduism

This religion originating in North India about 4,000 years ago which is superficially and in some of its forms polytheistic, has a concept of the supreme spirit, Brahman, above the many divine manifestations. These include the triad of chief gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva (creator, preserver, and destroyer). Central to Hinduism are the beliefs in reincarnation and karma: the oldest scriptures are the Vedas. Temple worship is almost universally observed and there are many festivals.

There are over 805 million Hindus worldwide. Women are not regarded as the equals of men but should be treated with kindness and respect. Muslim influence in North India led to the veiling of women and the restriction of their movements from about the end of the 12th century.

Hindu belief and ritual can vary greatly even between villages. Some deities achieve widespread popularity such as Krishna, Hanuman, Lakshmi and Durga: others, more localized and specialized, are referred to particularly in times of sickness or need. Hindus believe that all living things are part of Brahman, the Supreme Being: they are sparks of divine life that transmute from one body to another, sometimes descending into the form of a plant or an insect, sometimes the body of a human. This is all according to its karma or past actions which are the cause of its sufferings or joy as it rises and falls in the endless cycle of birth and death. Humans have the opportunity, through knowledge and devotion, to break the karmic chain and achieve final liberation.

The creative force of the universe is recognized in the god Brahma. Once he has brought the cosmos into being it is sustained by Vishnu and then annihilated by the god Siva, only to be created once more by Brahma. Vishnu and Siva are, respectively, the forces of light and darkness, preservation and destruction, with Brahma as the balancing force that enables the existence and interaction of life. The cosmos is seen as both real and an illusion, since its reality is not lasting; the cosmos is itself personified as the goddess Maya.

Hinduism has a complex of rites and ceremonies performed within the framework of the caste system under the supervision of the Brahman priests and teachers. In India, caste is traditionally derived from the four classes of early Hindu society: Brahmans (priests), nobles and warriors, traders and cultivators, and servants. A fifth class, the untouchables, regarded as polluting in its origins, remained (and still largely remains) on the edge of Hindu society. The Indian

Constituent Assembly of 1947 made discrimination against the Schedule Castes or Depressed Classes illegal, but strong prejudice continues.

Task 1. Find the words that mean the same as the following:

–pertaining to worship of a plurality of gods;

–allude, direct to attention;

–support, aid or keep from ruin;

–having many aspects;

–reproduction;

–change, transform;

–belief that soul returns after death to live in a new body;

–covering of fine net or other material to protect or hide a woman’s face.

Task 2. Restore the omitted parts of the text using the words given in brackets. (harmony, under, Confucius, ruler, action, cow, behaviour, religions, deity)

Confucianism is a philosophical system based on the teachings of (1)…… and practiced throughout China for nearly 2,000 years. Confucianism teaches a moral and social philosophy and code of (2)…… based on peace, order, humanity, wisdom, courage and fidelity. Confucius refused to consider the idea of God but his followers hold there is a state of heavenly (3)…… which man can attain by cultivating virtues, especially knowledge, patience, sincerity, obedience and the fulfillment of obligations between children and parents, subjects and (4)…… . Confucianism encourages the acceptance of the status quo.

Hinduism Is one of the world’s major religions. It embraces diverse beliefs and practices with toleration, regarding none as essential. Even other

(5)…… are accepted, though not their exclusiveness. Having no dogma, it is hardly definable. Hindus have great respect of all life, many being vegetarian and revering and protecting the (6)…… . The upper – class caste of Brahmins is respected as sacrosanct. The doctrine of transmigration of souls in an endless cycle, (7)…… the law of karma, is universally believed. The three paths of escape from the cycle are duty, knowledge ( sought by meditation and yoga) and devotion to God. True Hinduism began in the 2nd century B.C.E.

Krishna is the major (8)…… in later Hinduism, depicted as a blue skinned, sportive youth generally playing the flute. He is worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu, one of the major gods of modern Hinduism, and advocates selfless

(9)…… .

Task 3. Render from Russian into English.

Даосизм

Формирование даосизма в Китае относится к началу эпохи Хань (II в. до н. э.), его развитие и укрепление происходит параллельно с распро- странением конфуцианства. Даосизм и конфуцианство составили два взаимосвязанных религиозно-философских направления в духовной жиз- ни китайского общества. Общее число их последователей сегодня состав- ляет около 200 млн человек. За пределами Китая они немногочисленны,

но постепенно становятся популярными у некоторых интеллигентов и студентов западных стран. На сегодняшний день в России зарегистриро- вано девять даоских объединений.

Даосизм и конфуцианство объединяют прежде всего общие духовно религиозные корни, уходящие в первобытную магию древних китайцев, в представления о единстве мира и человека и гармонии Вселенной, где уравновешиваются противоположности – инь и ян. Кстати, китайская ре-

лигиозная традиции всячески культивирует непротиворечивость учений конфуцианства и даосизма. Считается, что Конфуций и основатель дао- сизма Лао-цзы жили в одно время, встречались и пришли к убеждению, что первоосновой мироздания является Дао.

Вместе с тем конфуцианство и даосизм нельзя отождествлять. Они различаются по содержанию, по отношению к сверхъестественному.

В центре конфуцианской доктрины находятся этико-политические моменты (нормы поведения в обществе и государстве). Даосизм обраща-

ется в первую очередь к вопросу о происхождении мира и роли человека в нем. Учение Конфуция более реалистично, оно всегда отражало интересы китайского чиновничества и было идеологической основой политики пра- вителей. Даосизм подвержен мистике, к нему часто обращались народные массы в период острых социальных кризисов. Конфуцианство, даосизм и буддизм составили основу религиозного синкретизма в Китае.

Part II

Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the great world religions, which originated in India about 500 B.C. It derives from the teaching of the Buddha, who is regarded as one of a series of such enlightened beings: there are no gods.

The teaching of Buddha is summarized in the Four Noble Truths, the last of which affirms the existence of a path leading to deliverance – from the universal human experience of suffering. A central tenet is the law of Karma, by which good and evil deeds result in appropriate reward or punishment in this life or in a succession of rebirths. Through a proper understanding of this condition, and by obedience to the right path, human beings can break the chain of Karma. The Buddha’s path to deliverance is through morality, meditation and wisdom. The aim is to break the chain of karma and achieve dissociation from the body by attaining nirvana (“blowing out”) – the eradication of all desires, either in annihilation or by absorption of the self in the infinite. The aim is to create the conditions favourable to spiritual development, leading to liberation or deliverance from bondage to suffering. This is generally seen as involving meditation, personal discipline, and spiritual exercises of various sorts. This common purpose has made it possible for Buddhism to be very flexible in adapting its organization, ceremony, and pattern of belief to different social and cultural situations. Reliable figures are unobtainable, but over 1000 million people live in lands where Buddhism is a significant religious influence.

Task 1. Make up 10 statement to agree or disagree with them.

Task 2. Restore the omitted parts of the text using the words given in brackets.

(connection, religion, differs, bringing, themselves, based, goal, buildings, followers)

Buddhism is a widespread Asian (1)…… and philosophy developed from Hinduism in the 6th century B.C.E. by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. His monastic disciples shaved their heads, dressed in rags and devoted (2)…… to the philosophy of Enlightenment. The Pali canon is the scriptural basis of Buddhism. Buddhist teaching advocates a middle course between mortification ((3)…… one’s body and soul into subjection by self denial or discipline) and the pursuit of ambition. The basic teachings of Buddhism are contained in the “four noble truths”:

1)all existence is suffering;

2)the cause of suffering is desire;

3)freedom from suffering is nirvana (the final (4)…… of harmony and satisfaction);

53

4) and the means of attaining nirvana is prescribed in the “eightfold path” that combines ethical conduct, mental discipline and wisdom.

The religion numbers 3,000/5,000 million (5)……, including those in Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia.

Zen is a sect of Japanese Buddhism, which developed in China from circa 500 C.E. and spread to Japan circa 1200. The word means “meditation”. Zen

(6)…… greatly from traditional Buddhism, rejecting images and ritual, scriptures and metaphysics.

Shinto (“way of the gods”) is the indigenous religion of Japan (7)…… on the belief that the royal family was descended from the sun – goddess Amaterasu Omikami. It later absorbed much Buddhist thought and practice. Shinto shrines are plain wooden (8)…… in which priest and people perform simple rites. Worship of the Emperor and the Zen influence on martial arts resulted in a close (9)…… between Shin to and Japanese militarism.

Task 3. Give as much information as possible about the following: Four Noble Truth, Buddha, Shinto, Zen, shrines, the law of Karma.

Task 4. Before you read the interview with the Dalai Lama, answer the following question in a written paragraph. Then discuss your answer with a partner. Do you think the world will be better or worse 100 years from now?

Peace Prevails

In the Buddhist tradition, the future counts for little. Nonetheless, when Tenzin Gyatso, fourteenth Dalai Lama and the spiritual and temporal leader of Tiber in exile, was asked to speculate on the landscape of faith a century from now, he gave it his best try. He was interviewed in Bloomington. Indiana, on a brilliant summer morning, after having laid the cornerstone1 for a new Buddhist temple.

Question: In the next hundred years, thanks to organ transplants and genetic therapies, people may be able to live much longer lives. It you had the chance to do that. Would you take it?

Dalai Lama: The mere living is not so important. The important thing is usefulness. So if I could get another hundred years more and be useful, then . . .

good. Otherwise, you just create more problems for others. And then, from the Buddhist viewpoint, isn’t it better to have another young body (through reincarnation)? There is a Buddhist story about an old monk who was dying and everyone was very sad. He said, “Don’t be sad. Right now, I have an old, decaying body. But very soon ... I will get a fresh young body”.

1 Cornerstone: a foundation; a stone laid at a formal ceremony. 54

Question: Three years ago, you predicted that the next hundred years would be a century of peace, hope and justice. Since then, there have been massacres in Rwanda and Burundi, the Northern Irish peace discussions have been blown apart and the Chinese have kidnapped the young boy you designated to be the Panchen Lama2. Are you still optimistic about the future?

Dalai Lama: Oh, yes. Of course. A handful of shortsighted people have always existed. But overall, their day is over because the public’s attitude towards war and violence has become much healthier than at any time in history. People used to be much more jingoistic3 and nationalistic compared with the way they are now.

Recently I was talking with the English Queen Mother. She is 96, and I asked her, “What changes have you seen in your lifetime?” – She answered, “When I was young, we had not much concern about the outside world. Now people have a great concern about what is happening all over the world”. This is a very positive change.

So I believe that due to the revolution in information, generally speaking, any leader, if he tried to mobilize the whole nation for war, would find it impossible. In previous times, it was quite possible. Well, small – scale wars, perhaps they can still do. Bur large scale – wars, I think, are nor likely. I do believe that in the next century we have to seriously think about putting a complete stop to the arms trade.

Question: Buddhism has become quire popular in the West. Could you see a future American President who is a practicing Buddhist?

Dalai Lama: No, I think someone in the Judeo-Christian tradition would be better. I prefer that people in Western countries follow their own traditions. I have no desire to propagate my religious beliefs.

Question: A hundred years in the future, what will be the role of women in religion?

Dalai Lama: I think improved. Because the women want it.

Question: Can you see a situation where there might be a woman as Pope, a woman as Archbishop of Canterbury, a woman as Dalai Lama?

Dalai Lama: In the Buddhist world, there’s not much of a problem. Some of the Lamas of high reincarnation are women.

Question: Is it possible that you, the 14rh Dalai Lama, might be the last Dalai Lama?

Dalai Lama: It is possible. Not as a result of external force, though. If the majority of the Tibetan people feel that the Dalai Lama institution is no longer relevant, then the institution will automatically cease. Now, if that happens

2Panchen Lama: chief spiritual adviser to the Dalai Lama.

3Jingoism: extreme nationalism, usually marked by an aggressive, warlike attitude toward other countries.

55

while I’m alive or just after my death, then I am obviously the last Dalai Lama. But if my death comes in the next one or two years, then most probably the Tibetan people will want to have another incarnation. Of that I’m quite certain. Of course, there is the possibility that Tibetans become insignificant in our land and all decisions are made by the Chinese. It is possible and very sad.

Question: Are you concerned that you might have a violent death?

Dalai Lama: It is possible, I don’t know. Airplanes trouble me. Dying in the ocean. And ending up in the stomach of a shark.

Question: One hundred years from now, what would you like to be remembered for?

Dalai Lama: As a Buddhist practitioner, I have no interest in that. So long as I am alive, my time and my life must be utilized properly. Then after my death, I don’t care how people remember me.

Question: Is it true that you like to go shopping when you travel?

Dalai Lama: I like it. I’m a human being. I think human beings have a lot of curiosity. I go to Los Angeles; sometimes I shop for myself. Shoes . . . small electronic equipment. . . car food. I go to shopping malls just like they were museums.

Question: Many people get a sense of God by observing nature. What will religions be like in a hundred years if there is little nature left on earth?

Dalai Lama: The world itself is nature. The sun, the moon, they are nature. Even if there were no more animals, nature would still be here. For those religions that believe in a creator, they would have to find reasons to explain why our beautiful blue planet became a desert.

If you ask me whether it’s good or bad, of course it’s bad. But in the Buddhist tradition, something like that would not change our attitude. We believe the whole world will come and disappear, come and disappear – so eventually the world becomes desert and even the ocean dries up. But then again, another new world is reborn. It’s endless.

On each of the main themes of this reading, give a few sentences summarizing the Dalai Lama’s point of view:

–What does the Dalai Lama say about his philosophy of death?

–What does the Dalai Lama say about his attitude toward woman?

–What does he say about the role of the Dalai Lama in the war?

–What does he say about the future of the earth?

56

UNIT SIX

REVISION

Part I

Pre-reading vocabulary exercises

1. Match the names of religions with the names of places they are practiced

in.

2.Name religions in which you could find these people. Rabbi, imam, priest, monk, guru.

3.Match the verbs in Box A with their complements in Box B.

4. Complete the sentences below with words from the following list: martyr, monk, pilgrims, forgiveness, repentance, secular, demons, heaven, hell.

a)She knew that she must decide whether she had the courage to be a ...

and die for her faith.

b)I wouldn’t like to be a ... especially if I had to stay silent with all the other men.

c)I watched all the ... making their way to the shrine. They had been travelling for more than two weeks and they were very tired but very happy.

d)If you want my ... for the terrible things you have done you must realize your mistakes. Unless I can see genuine signs of ... I will not have you back into

this house.

e)The problem with ... societies is that they are only interested in material success, according to one priest.

f)She stared at the paintings of the ... with their sharp teeth and cruel eyes.

They made her feel frightened.

g) If you live a good life you will definitely go to ... according to a Christian friend of mine. But I fear that if I go anywhere it will be to…

5.Name the adjective from each of these nouns: heaven, sin, devil, angel, faith, demon, saint, prophet.

6.Find which of the adjectives in exercise 5 can go with these words or phrases.

7. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the words in italics, give definitions to the words in italics.

a)The temple contains a number of sacred objects, including one of Buddha’s teeth.

b)She can’t eat meat. It’s against her religion.

c)The priest sprinkled the congregation with holy water.

d)Our background, and our cultural and religious beliefs, will all affect the way we raise our children.

e)The kids at this school belong to many different religions.

f)The company welcomes applications from people of every race, creed and colour.

g)A true believer would never eat meat, as killing any living thing is for-

bidden.

h)Leaders of the various Christian denominations are meeting to discuss

church unity.

i)Suleka has no objections to marrying someone of a different religious

faith.

j)Devout Muslims pray to Allah five times a day.

k)He says he’s a Jew but he’s not a practising one.

Part II

Work with a partner and write a definition for each of the following words. Break down each word according to the “Member/Smaller Class-Larger ClassSpecific Details” categories before you actually write its definition. Use a dictionary if necessary. The first one has been done for you.

1. a synagogue

Definition: A synagogue is a house of worship where Judaism is practiced.

2. a prayer

Definition: ________________________________________________________

3. a sin

Definition: ________________________________________________________

4. a prophet

Definition: ________________________________________________________

5. a ritual

Definition: ________________________________________________________

59

Part III

Choose one question and write a well-organized essay. Remember to provide a thesis statement and sufficient explanations, examples, and support to develop your definition. Use the vocabulary you have studied in this unit.

1.Write a brief definition of the religion you follow or the dominant religion in your country. Explain its most important beliefs and practices.

2.George Bernard Shaw4 wrote, “There is only one religion, though there are a hundred versions of it”. Do you agree or disagree? Explain your answer.

3.How has religion influenced and affected your life? Write an essay defining the positive and/or negative effects of religion on various aspects of your life.

4.Would you marry someone of a different faith? Why or why not? What difficulties would you have to overcome, and what would be the positive or negative results?

5.Can a person be “religious” without following a formal religion? Answer the question with reference to the following poem by Emily Dickinson5.

Some keep the Sabbath going to church;

I keep it staying at home.

With a bobolink6 for a chorister7,

And an orchard for a dome.

Some keep the Sabbath in surplice8:

I just wear my wings,

And instead of tolling the bell for church,

Our little sexton9 sings.

God preaches, – a noted clergyman, –

And the sermon is never long;

So instead of getting to heaven at last,

I’m going all along.

4George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Irish-born British playwright and author.

5Emily Dickinson (1830–1886), American poet.

6Bobolink: an American songbird.

7Chorister: a singer in a church choir.

8Surplice: a loose, white robe worn by clergymen.

9Sexton: a church officer or employee who takes care of church property and, in some churches, rings the beil for services.

60