World_Religions

Reduction of the sacramental system. The Reformers abolished all sacramentals, because of their Pelagian character, and five of the seven Sacraments, keeping only the two explicitly mentioned in the New Testament: baptism and the Eucharist. These are effective only through faith.

Different understanding of the Church. The Church is not the intermediary between God and man, but only the association of those who believe. It exists wherever the word of God is preached sincerely and the Sacraments are duly administered. Consequently the Church does not possess any absolute authority. The word of God comes to us authoritatively from the Bible, not from the Church.

In principle the Reformers believed in the right of the individual to interpret the Bible as his or her own conscience dictates, but they assumed that all men of good faith would agree with the Reformers, and were extremely distressed to find that this was not the case. The Reformers’ doctrine of the right of private interpretation of the Bible made possible the multitude of divisions that have since taken place within Protestant Christianity.

Virtue the consequence of being saved. In the view of Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, whether a person is saved depends on the kind of life he lives. The Reformers rejected this view. Instead they taught that if a person leads a good life that is a sign and consequence of the fact that God has decreed his salvation and granted him faith. God does not save us because of our good deeds; instead, he saves us first, and that leads us to follow His commandments. For the Catholic, salvation takes place only at death; for Luther and Calvin, however, it takes place essentially during life, though it does not reach completion till death.

The elimination of prayers for the dead. Since our salvation is entirely the work of God’s grace, and owes nothing whatsoever to human achievements, there is no place for a doctrine of Purgatory, that intermediate state of purification into which, according to Catholic doctrine, the soul enters when it has merited neither heaven nor hell. In the view of the Reformers the individual is either saved or not saved, is either chosen by God or not chosen. At death, then, the soul must immediately enter either heaven or hell. Thus there is nothing to be gained by praying for the dead.

Task 2. Use the following cliche to agree or disagree with the statements: If we want to make it clear we agree, we can use these expressions:

–I fully (quite) agree with you.

–Beyond all doubt (no doubt).

–Exactly! Just so.

–Quite so.

–I suppose so.

–Up to the point.

–It looks very much like it.

We often agree by continuing with the same opinion or adding to it:

– That’s just what I was going to say. And I’d like to point out that….

It’s very common in English to begin with a short expression of agreement, and then give a different opinion. Here are some expressions used to introduce the disagreement:

If you strongly disagree with someone you can say:

–I’m afraid you are wrong (mistaken).

–I disagree with you (on that point).

–On the contrary.

–It is (just) the other way around.

–Far from it.

–Certainly (surely) not.

–Oh, but you’ve got it all wrong, I’m afraid.

–I (rather) doubt it.

When you want to disagree but not completely, we can use these phrases:

–Yes, I partly agree (with you), but…

–I agree to some extent, but…

–There’s something in what you say, but…

Practise them in pairs, giving your partner right or false statements about the text below.

Part II

Task 1. Read this entry from the dictionary, then the definition of the word “orthodox” from the same dictionary and state suitability of the word ORTHODOX as the equivalent of the Russian word “православный”.

The Orthodox Church

The phrase is used in reference to the Eastern or Greek Church, having the Patriarch of Constantinople as its head, and the national Churches of Russia, Romania, etc. in communion with it. Separation from the Western Church came in the 4th century, originally through cultural and political factors, focused from the 5th century onwards on differences of doctrine and ritual, and took formal

effect in 1054 when the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other. In the latter part of the 20th century the Orthodox Churches have taken an active part in the ecumenical movement; the mutual excommunications of 1054 were abolished in 1965 (OEED) Orthodox Church.

Orthodox

1.(a) holding correct or currently accepted opinions, especially on religious doctrine, morals, etc.;

(b)not independent – minded; unoriginal; unheretical.

2.(of religious doctrine, standards of morality, etc.) generally accepted as right or true; authoritatively established; conventional.

3.(also O-) (of Judaism) strictly keeping the traditional doctrine and ritual (OEED).

Task 2. Translate into Russian.

The Russian Pravoslavnaya Church

Christianity was brought to Slavs by the missionaries, Kirill and Mefody (known in the West as Cyrill and Methodious) in the 9th century. They created the alphabet for the Slavs, so-called Kirillitsa (Cyrillic), and translated the Bible into Old (Church) Slavonic.

Russia was baptized in 988 under prince Vladimir of Kiev. The small principality of Kiev was surrounded by powerful neighbours, who tried to influence Vladimir in his choice of a new religion. Thus Vladimir’s option was Byzantine Christianity, Islam, or Judaism of Khazars. Vladimir started negotiations with Constantinople and that led him to the marriage to the emperor’s sister (989), but the necessary precondition was his baptism (988). It was a baptism, which was to determine the religion of the Russian people for centuries to come. The choice in favour of Eastern Christianity also influenced the character of Russian writing – it was to Kirillitsa, not the Roman writing of the Roman Catholic Church. As Russia had close links with Constantinople, it became still more separated from Rome after the Great Schism of 1054, which divided Christianity into two parts – Western, with the Roman Pope at its head, and Eastern, with Constantinople as its leader.

During the Mongol-Tatar invasion the Church became the center of resistance. The most significant church figure of the 14th century was not a metropolitan but a humble monk, Sergy Radonezhsky (1314–1392). One of the greatest of Russian monasteries, Troitse-Sergrieva Lavra dedicated to the Troitsa (Holy Trinity), was to develop around his hermitage 70 km north-east of Moscow at the place subsequently named after him – Sergiev Posad.

Constantinople was soon to fall to the Turks (1453). In Muscovy it was said that this was a punishment for acceptance of the Union with Rome. Rus-

sian rulers popularized the concept of Moscow as the Third Rome (successor to the second Rome, Constantinople). The first Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus was to be metropolitan Iov of Moscow.

In the 16th century the Church became closely linked with the state. Russian rulers struggled against the influence of the Church. Ivan the Terrible demonstrated cruelly his power not only by dismissing the Metropolitan Iov of Moscow, Filipp, but by having him strangled.

The last attempts to return the supremacy of the Church in Russia were made by Patriarch Nikon. His efforts proved to be abortive and created the Schism in Russian Christianity, with a large group of Old Believes, i. e. adherents of old traditions, splitting from the Church. Nikon’s failure cleared the way for the ecclesiastical reforms of Peter the Great. After that tsar, the Church remained subordinate to the state until the end of the Russian Empire (based on: CamEnc, 1994).

Task 3. Make up plan to this text and be ready to speak on any point of it. Task 4. Translate into Russian.

Peter I (1672–1725), of the Romanov dynasty, was Tsar since 1682, the Emperor of Russia since 1721. He carried out reforms of all the spheres of state life. Some of these reforms were justified and necessary, however his ecclesiastical reforms dealt a heavy blow to the Russian Pravoslavnaya Church, so that the consequences of them have not been fully overcome up to now. He abolished the patriarchate and subordinated the Church to the Synod, a state body governed by a bureaucrat appointed by tsar, he introduced unbearable taxes of monasteries; the best craftsmen were taken from the monasteries to carry out Peter’s construction plans, he appointed as Church hierarchs his own people, who were faithful to him and not to the Church, and, finally, Peter made his own interests prior to the ecclesiastical holiness and placed himself above the Holy Church Fathers by abolishing the secrecy of the confession and ordered the clergy to answer all the questions of his investigators. Thus it is not by chance that many Pravoslavnyi believers, particularly those observing old traditions, were convinced that Peter was Antichrist.

Part III

Task 1. Several words are missed here. Try to restore them to their places.

Council; Third Rome; the Cathedral of the Dormition; clergy; deprived; patriarchate; situation; Civil War; Established; confiscation; separated; metropolitan; militancy; ideology.

The October Revolution and the Era of Atheism

In the summer of 1917, soon after the February Revolution, the first

(1)…… of the Russian Orthodox Church for two and a half centuries was held. It took place at the very heart of the old (2)……, in (3)…… in the Moscow Kremlin. It reestablished the (4)…… and chose Patriarch. The choice fell on Tikhon, newly elected metropolitan of Moscow (1865–1925).

The Church which he was called upon to lead was faced with unprecedented problems. With him began a new line of martyrs and confessors, for although the Church was suddenly (5)…… from the state the new establishment was to subject it to every kind of indignity and constraint.

The Bolshevik government decree of 23 January 1918 on the separation of Church and state and of schooling from the Church affected all religious bodies, but none so obviously or so immediately as the formerly (6)…… Church of the Russian Empire. Now the Church found itself (7)…… even of the rights of a person at law.

The (8)…… of Church property (legitimized by the same decree) soon led to confrontation. The newly elected patriarch’s first encyclicals expressed a severity, which bordered on (9)…… (19 January and 7 November 1918). But his insistence that the new leaders acted “in a manner contrary to the conscience of the people” could only serve to confirm the Bolsheviks in their resolve to mould that conscience in accordance with their own (10)…… . An intensive (generally crude) antireligious propaganda campaign was put into operation as soon as the (11)…… ended in 1922. There followed clashes, deaths and arrests. Among those to be tried and executed, in 1922, was the meek and popular (12)…… of Petrograd, Veniamin Kazansky.

The 1930s saw a drastic reduction in the number of churches, the dissolution of the monasteries, and the imprisonment of countless (13)……. At the outbreak of war, hardly four bishops were at liberty to exercise their pastoral role within the narrow limits permitted by the authorities. The war created an entirely new (14)…… .

Task 2. Answer the questions:

1.Why had the Russian Pravoslavnaya Church held no Council for two and a half centuries?

2.Why does the author refer to the Dormition Cathedral as “the Old Third Rome”?

3.What is the Russian name of “the Dormition Cathedral”?

4.Who became the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus in 1917?

5.What was the position of the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution

towards the RPCh?

6.Why was the separation of the Church from the State so damaging for the Church?

7.What decision of the Bolshevik government led to the open confronta-

tion of the State and the Church?

8.What was the response of the Church to the decision of the Bolshevik?

9.How did the Bolshevik government conduct their struggle against the Church?

10.What was the position of the RPCh during the Great Fatherland War?

Part IV

The Church Preaches Accord

Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Aleksy II is interviewed by MN’s Vladimir Shevelev, editor of the morality and law desk.

– Usually in our “Leader” section MN introduces prominent politicians, military people, scientists and cultural workers. But for the first time we are featuring a clergyman. How do you, the first person of the biggest and most influential Church of Russia, appraise your leadership?

– The position of the Patriarch has never been easy in our country – both after the institution of the Patriarchate by Fyodor Ioannovich in 1589, and after its abolition by Peter the Great in 1718. And it has been especially difficult in postrevolutionary Russia. From the first steps of my patriarchate I clearly came to understand what heavy work was in store for me and what responsibility. Feelings of complacency, selfadmiration and superiority over other people are alien to me. Although you could say that I have been lucky: my election coincided with very important positive changes in the life of our country.

–But, after all, you yourself contributed to these changes.

–Of course, I did. In the mid – 1980s the Church began to emerge from rigid isolation and occupy an ever more visible place in society. There was a need to re-establish normal church life and adopt a law on the freedom of conscience which would not in words as before but in practice stand up for the rights of believers and the Church. At that time, clergymen – and not only those

of the Orthodox Church – took part in elections, becoming people’s deputies, and did much for the revitalization of society.

– Today, both in church and, especially, around the church one can hear people saying: perestroika and reforms in Russia have led to disorder and instability, to stratification into the poor and the rich, to the victory of vulgar materialism, etc. There are some who ask in embarrassment: perhaps, it would have been better not to begin this at all?

– Those who have grown weak spiritually do not want to remember what existed in the past – the sway of fear and hypocrisy, total, compulsory atheism,

genocide in relation to the Church. Departure from the totalitarian system signified people’s return to the faith of their fathers, and a search for the road to the Church. However, it is not society’s sound forces alone that have shaken off the fetters, everything unkind that there is in man – aggressiveness, brutality, vanity

– has come to the surface as well. Some politicians – pleasing their ambitions and neglecting the interests of ordinary people – have begun isolating themselves off from the world and announcing the sovereignty of the territory or spiritual space on any occasion. There has arisen the real threat of a split, disarray and disruption of all ties – economic, human and national. What must be done to guard ourselves against this terrible calamity? The Russian Orthodox Church has found that particularly great in these conditions is the danger of plunging ourselves into the stormy waves of political passions. A clergyman cannot belong to any party – this will hinder him from taking an impartial attitude towards all parishers, and listening to everyone with similar attention and sympathy. A politicized Church is an inevitable source of discord, whereas the Church’s most important function is reconciliation and unification. We have strongly advised clergymen to stay away from political battles. That’s the reason why the Patriarchate reacted to Gleb Yakunin’s decision the way it did – despite our advice – to run for the State Duma.

– But only quite recently Metropolitan Ioann of St. Petersburg and Ladoga, member of the Holy Synod, publicly gave his blessing to a political movement known as Accord in the Name of Russia. The newspaper, which published his opinion, was very pleased: “For the first time a church hierarch of such a high rank has interfered in politics, moreover, on the side of the “left-of-centre opposition”.

– The position of the Rev. Ioann has baffled many people. It is strange, of course: the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) takes part in drafting a Memorandum calling for unity among all of the country’s political forces, but at the same time Metropolitan Ioann supports and blesses the political forces opposed to the Memorandum. It should be kept in mind, however, that no matter how high a position the Rev. Ioann may hold in the church hierarchy, he cannot speak on behalf of the Church. This is only the right of the Local and Bishop councils. In the intervals between the councils this right is vested solely in the Holy Synod and the Patriarch, or in anyone whom the Synod will authorize to voice its opinion. Nobody gave such an instruction to Metropolitan Ioann.

– One more oddity: judging by the recent statements of the Rev. Ioann, the core of world cataclysms is the “religious war” between Judaism and the Christian Church. Reconciliation, Metropolitan Ioann believes, is impossible here: “The spiritual principles of the two sides are directly opposed and irreconcilable”. Metropolitan Ioann’s statements can hardly be placed among theological research studies or among searches for truth. Avowedly and persistently he has

been trying to reanimate old prejudices and awaken one people’s suspiciousness of another.

– At the nearest Synod we shall necessarily speak about the importance for a church hierarch to weigh each of his words. Someone will gladly jump on this dubious passage and say: look, the Church engages in antisemitic activities. And he will be driving a wedge between the Church and society. The ROC, however, is free from racial prejudices. To whom is it not clear that it is madness to foment inter-ethnic strife in the chaotic times? And let me repeat the opinion of one official is not the opinion of the Church.

–A religious war – this has a sinister ring.

–We flatly reject the inevitability of inter-religious wars, between any denominations. It is even more pointless to look for some incarnated carriers of evil in our country. As a pastor, I know that evil thoughts nestle in the hearts of

people, and there is nothing more complicated and more important than to cure the human heart. Peacekeeping has been and is a major activity for the Russian Orthodox Church. This is perhaps the only domain where a clergyman has a right to intervene in the spheres of politics. No matter where I may go, I constantly call upon people (all people) to reach accord. And I hope that I will be heard. Recently I visited the Mari Republic where a half of its population is Orthodox and the other half is heathen. I was asked: would not the arrival of the Orthodox patriarch spark confrontation between heathenism and Orthodoxy? I replied: if we begin dividing people on the basis of religion – but Christianity and heathenism have old scores to settle and old mutual injuries – this will lead to internal war. God forbids. But apprehensions of this kind will be groundless if people see that we treat the faith of everyone with respect. We must build our society on the basis of toleration, particularly relevant in our country, which is so rich in denominations and religions.

–You are being criticized for the fact that in the recent past the ROC’s peacekeeping activities had been merely a screen for the closed, aggressive state.

–This is not so. Even in those times our thoughts were clean and at that time we managed to do quite a lot although, indeed, quite often this activity had a formal, showy character. Not so now. When I interrupted my visit to the USA last October at the time of the events in Moscow, I did not even think that I

would have to take part in negotiations. Simply at that trying hour I understood that I had to be with my people, with my Church. Very soon it became obvious, however, that the Church alone, and confidence in it, could bring the opposing forces together at the negotiating table – Voronin and Filatov, Abdulatipov and Luzhkov. On the night of October 3 we were near an accord. But subsequent events divided people. In those dark days I clearly came to understand – and I spoke about this - that the Motherland was threatened with two terrible threats:

the threat of bloodshed – blood divides people – and the threat of Russia’s disintegration into independent princedoms – many years will be needed to come together again. This summer we are going to hold in Moscow a conference of Christian churches “Christian Faith and Human Enmity”. If it proves to be successful, we will enlarge it by inviting other religions and religious associations to take part in it. It is important to show that faith – any faith – can infuse a conciliatory spirit into human relations. Last week the Russian Orthodox Church initiated talks between the spiritual leaders of Azerbaijan and Armenia at Moscow’s Danilov Monastery. They proceeded not without difficulties but, I hope, they brought some benefit: notably, a change is in the offing in the matter of exchanging hostages.

– One more difficult question – the organization of life in a church parish. What are the possibilities for the priest to display his independence and creativity?

– In different churches priests take different approaches towards their pastoral duties. For instance, Father Dimitry Smirnov performs them one way, but Father Alexander Borisov in a different way. Yet pastoral experience is given precisely for this purpose: a priest is constantly searching for his own approach towards human souls. It is impossible to declare and regulate everything, as it is impossible to impose a minimum standard on everyone. The difference of mind exists and will exist. But when it transcends the framework of the permissible, it may give rise to temptation in the Church. This is particularly dangerous now that, after the 70-year spiritual vacuum, people have come to trust any preacher. The White Brotherhood became popular precisely because its leaders masqueraded as religious preachers. However, a religious preacher cannot carry malice, curses and hatred. The pastoral approach cannot be reduced to one common denominator. But neither is it possible arbitrarily, as one sees it fit, to change the character of church service – and exactly this was done by Father Georgi Kochetkov. The problem was discussed in the press, but – as I see it – in a rather one-sided way. The ROC leadership is not at all against innovations and their discussion – church life, like everything else in the world, needs improvement. But, first, changes must not be introduced at a moment’s notice and, second, questions of this kind are a subject for Bishop and Local councils. These issues need to be raised with them. There is also a need to reckon with the fact that any innovation was greatly hampered by the notorious renovation – a church movement inspired by the NKVD. For many people any attempt at modernization arouses dark associations, with the result that the label of renovation is immediately pasted on any, even harmless subject.

– You said that it was inappropriate for a religious preacher to incite hatred among people. Regrettably, this reproach can be levelled not at the White Brotherhood alone. Some leaders of the Union of Orthodox Brethren have

lately been extremely intolerant of those who do not share their radical views on the organization of church life and on relations between different creeds. Those who disagree are easily labelled as godless, satanists, antipatriots.

– This alarms me. At the latest congress of Brotherhoods I saw with what embitteredness some spoke. The speech of a female represantative of the Chelyabinsk Brotherhood was completely untrue and directed against the Church. Addressing the congress, I said that the very word “brotherhood” largely defined its character, ruling out enmity and suspicion. As far as true Christian patriotism is concerned, it must not be profaned with national pride, a desire to monopolize the idea of patriotism in the pursuit of narrow egoistic ends... On the other hand, it should be kept in mind that the brotherhoods have a big part to play, being called upon to help the Church in the circulation of religious literature, in the conduct of enlightening activities, and in aid to sick and lone people.

–The ROC and you, Your Holiness, have fairly often been reproached for harboring an intention to make the Russian Orthodox Church a state church. Is this fair?

–No, it isn’t. The existence of a state church would be very problematic. Such a church would have against its own will to answer for all the imperfec-

tions of the state machinery. If the Church begins interfering in state affairs, it is natural that the state will meddle in the affairs of the Church. And we know well what this leads to. The Church must be in fact completely separated from the state. Only then will it be able to appraise events taking place in the country from the positions of spirituality and morality. Only then will it be able to testify to the truth and, among other things, to tell the truth to the government instead of unconditionally supporting it.

–What would you like to say to conclude?

–There is a verbal formula which probably is fully clear solely to those who believe in God. However, I hope that now it can become equally accessible to many nonbelievers as well. Here it is: Love alone may be above the Law.

Mercy alone – above the Right. And Foregiveness alone – above Justice.

Patriarch Aleksy II (his secular name is Aleksei Mikhailovich Ridiger) was born on February 23, 1929, in Tallinn, Estonia, where his family emigrated from St. Petersburg in 1917. In 1953 he graduated from the Leningrad Theological Academy when he was still a student, he was consecrated to the ministry of the gospel. In 1961 took monastic vows and in the same year became the Bishop of Tallinn and Estonia. In 1964 – The Business Manager of the Moscow Patriarchate, a member of the Holy Synod. Between 1986 and 1990 – the Metropolitan of Leningrad and Novgorod. In 1990 the Local Council elected him Pariarch. He is the author of about 200 theological works and works on church history. He holds a doctorate in theology. From 1989 to 1991 he was a people’s

deputy of the USSR. He is Chairman of the Presidium of the Conference of European Churches. Among his many awards there is the Order of the Red Banner of Labor and two Orders of Friendship of Peoples (from Moscow News, April 22 – 28, 1994).

Task 1. Resume the main idea. Task 2. Make up 15 questions.

Task 3. Make up the plan and be ready to speak on any point of it.

Part V

The Bible

The Bible (Greek biblia “books”) is a set of books comprising the Christian Scripture. The Bible consists of two parts, the Old Testament (50 books) and the New Testament (27 books). The Old Testament is written in Hebrew, while the New Testament is written in Greek. The first Biblical texts appeared in the 12th century B.C., and the latest texts date back to the beginning of the 2nd century A.D.

The content of the Bible is presented in the form of message of God to the people, and the narration of the way people listened to their Creator. The Old Testament is the expectation of Christ and the prophecy of his Advent. The Gospel describes Christ’s life, sermons, sufferings and His Resurrection. The Acts of the Apostles and their letters depict the first steps of the early Christians. The Apocalypse brings reader to the events preceeding the second coming of Christ.

Each Biblical book has its title: Exodus, The Book of Daniel, The Gospel According to Luke, and The letter of Paul to the Romans. As a rule, when quoting the Bible, they never supply the full title of the book, using instead its abbreviation (e. g. “Ex”, “Dan”, “Rom”). So that to make it easier to find the exact source of the quotation used by the preacher, the reference is made to the title of the book, the number of the chapter and that of the verse in question. For instance, the reference to “Rom”. 12:9 signifies that the text quoted is taken from the Letter of Paul to The Romans, Chapter 12, Verse 9.

The Old Testament was originally written almost entirely in Hebrew, with a few short elements in Aramaic. That language became the lingua franca of the area when the Persian Empire controlled the Mediterranean region. The New Testament books were first written in Greek, with some parts appearing in Aramaic, which was the native language of Jesus Christ.

The first major step towards making the Old Testament known worldwide was made by the translation of it into Greek. The miraculous work is said to

have been requested by Ptolemy II, king of Egypt (285?–247?) and was the work of 70 Jewish translators who spent 72 days in isolation from each other but finally produced the versions that turned out to be identical. The translation is known under the name of “Septuagint” and became the base of the first part of the Christian Bible. The early Christian Church, whose language was Greek, used the Septuagint as its Bible, and it is still the Standard version of the Old Testament in the Greek Church.

The Latin version of the Bible was prepared mainly by Jerome (c. 342– 420) in the late 4th (c. 384–405), who translated it directly from Hebrew text of the Old Testament making use of the Septuagint Greek translation as well. This version, known as “Vulgate” (from the Latin word vulgata, “public”) is used by the Roman Catholic Church in the recension of 1592, the Council of Trent having decreed in 1546 that the Vulgate was to be the sole Latin authority for the Bible.

The spread of Christianity necessitated translations of the Bible into Coptic, Ethiopian, and Gothic. Later on the Church successfully resisted further translation of the Bible till the era of the Reformation when new versions of it in European languages were made.

The Russian Pravoslavnaya Church uses in its liturgy the translation which was basically made by the enlighteners of Slavs Kirill and Mefodii (Cyril and Methodius). The Church Slavonic language of the translation has never been vernacular but was very close to this status and comprehensible to all Slavs, and that made the basic difference between Russian and Western cultures, because the latter had used the Latin translation of the Bible up to the period of Reformation.

The Elizavetinskaya Bible, published in 1756, has been accepted as the canonical text of the RPCh. The complete translation of the Bible into Russian (The Synodal Translation) was published in 1876. There have been made several attempts in the 20th century to create a new version, but none has been successful.

Task 1. Translate into Russian.

Task 2. Be ready to give information about (on) any proper name mentioned in the text.

The Christian Bible

At the time of Jesus the definitive form of the Hebrew Bible had not yet been agreed on. For the Sadducees the only authoritative scripture was the Five Books of Moses. The Pharisees recognized in addition the books of the Prophets, and after the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70 the Pharisaical view predominated. The remaining books, called the “Writings”, such as the Psalms, were added about the end of the first century.

The Christians accepted the Jewish Bible as the “Old Testament”. At first, following the Pharisees, this contained only the Law and the Prophets. When the Jew added the Writings, the Christians did too.

In addition the Christians produced their own writings. The first Christian writings to be circulated widely were the letters of Paul to the various Churches he founded, which they would pass on to others. The first was the letter to the Church of Thessalonica, written about the year 50. The lives of Jesus, which we call the Gospels were written somewhat later, the earliest being the Gospel of Mark, written perhaps about the year 70. The last writing to be accepted as part of the Christian Bible was the “Second Letter of Peter”, written perhaps about the year 135.

Around the year A.D. 180 the list of books was finally settled, after some debate. Christians considered these books authoritative and divinely inspired, and they were called the “New Testament”. Since the Church produced the Bible, and decided what books should be recognized as belonging to it, the attitude of the Church at this time was that the Church was superior to the Bible. The rule or criterion of the true faith was not in the first instance the Bible, but the faith of the Church.

Task 1. Read and discuss.

UNIT THREE

Part I

Judaism

Judaism is the religion of the ancient Hebrews and their descendants the Jews, based, according to the Old Testament, on a covenant between God, the transcendent creator of the world, and Abraham about 2000 B.C., and the renewal of the covenant with Moses about 1200 B.C. God delivered the Israelites out of their bondage in Egypt and chose them to be a light to all mankind. Judaism rests on the concept of one eternal invisible God, whose will is revealed in the Torah and who has a special relationship with the Jewish people. The Torah comprises the first five books of the Bible (the Pentateuch), which contains the history, laws, and guide to life for correct behaviour. Besides those living in Israel, there are large Jewish populations today in the USA, the former Soviet Union, the UK and Commonwealth nations, and in Jewish communities throughout the world. There are approximately 18 million Jews, with about 9 million in the Americas, 5 million in Europe and 4 million in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.

The Talmud, which is next in importance to the Hebrew Bible, combines the Mishna, rabbinical commentary on the law handed down orally from 70 AD and put in writing about 200, and the Gemara, legal discussions in the schools of Palestine and Babylon from the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Haggadah is a part of the Talmud dealing with stories of heroes. The Midrash is a collection of commentaries on the scriptures written in 400–1200, mainly in Palestine. Along with the Torah they are regarded as authoritative sources of Jewish ritual, worship and practice.

The synagogue is the local building for congregational worship (originally simply the place where the Torah was read and expounded); its characteristic feature is the Ark, the enclosure where the Torah scrolls are kept. Rabbis are ordained teachers schooled on the Jewish law and ritual who act as spiritual leaders and pastors of their communities; some devote themselves to study. Religious practices include circumcision, daily services in Hebrew, observance of the Sabbath (sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday) as a day of rest, and, among orthodox Jews, strict dietary laws. High Holy days include Rosh Hashanah marking the Jewish New Year (first new moon after the autumn equinox) and, a week later, the religious fast Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). Other holidays are celebrated throughout the year to commemorate various events of Biblical history.

In the late Middle Ages when Europe and Western Asia were divided into Christian and Islamic countries, the Jewish people also found itself divided into two main groups. Jews in Central and Eastern Europe, namely in Germany and

Poland, were called Ashkenazi. Sefardic Jews can trace their tradition back to the Mediterranean countries, particularly Spain and Portugal under Muslim rule. When they were expelled in 1492 they settled in North Africa, the Levant, the Far East and Northern Europe. The two traditions differ in a number of ritual and cultural ways but their theology and basic Jewish practice is the same.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries there was a move by some Jewish groups away from traditional or orthodox observances. This trend gave rise to a number of groups within Judaism. Orthodox Jews, who form the majority, assert the supreme authority of the Torah, adhere to all the traditions of Judaism, including the strict dietary laws and the segregation of women in the synagogue. Reform Judaism rejects the idea that Jews are the chosen people, has a liberal interpretation of the dietary laws, and takes a critical attitude toward the Torah. Conservative Judaism is a compromise between Orthodox and Reform in its acceptance of the traditional law, making some allowances for modern conditions, although its services and ceremonies are closer to Orthodox than to Reform. Liberal Judaism, or Reconstructionism, goes further than Reform in attempting to adapt Judaism to the needs of the modern world and to interpret the Torah in the light of current scholarship. In all the groups except Orthodox, women are not segregated in the synagogue, and there are female rabbis in both Reform and Liberal Judaism. In the 20th century many people who call themselves Jews prefer to identify Judaism with an historical and cultural tradition rather than with strict religious observance.

Task 1. Find the words that mean the same as the following:

–slavery, involuntary servitude, captivity;

–cling, be fixed in attachment or devotion;

–invested with priestly functions;

–affirm positively;

–release or save as from evil or trouble;

–the act of cutting off the foreskin (of males) as a religious rite;

–positive, peremptory, dictatorial;

–the agreement or engagement of God with man;

–occupy oneself or itself with, take action with respect to a thing or a person;

–based or founded;

–pass on in succession.

Task 2. Read the words and constructions and put the correct preposition from the box into the gap:

according………, to be closer………, the covenant………, to adhere………, to deliver………, to give rise………, to rest………, to divide………, to reveal………, to devote………, guide………(life), to be schooled………, to be next……… importance………, to be regarded………, commentary………, to deal………, to hand……… .

Task 3. Give definitions of the following words and learn them (both) by heart:

Descendant, renewal, congregation, to expound, to ordaine, pastor, observance, equinox, Atonement, segregation, acceptance, synagogue, worship, spiritual.

Task 4. Make up 15 statements to the text to agree or disagree with them. Work in pairs.

Task 5. Give as much information as possible about the following:

The Pentateuch, the Torah, ancient Hebrews, Judaism, synagogue, Holy Days, religious practices.

Part II

Task 1. Restore the omitted parts of the texts using the words given in brackets.

(Hebrew, influential, foundation, death, ancestor, interpretations, Commandments, kosher, spirits, belief, satisfy, resurrection, festival, influential)

Judaism

This is the religion of the Jews; the most ancient of the world’s surviving monotheistic religions and as such deeply……. on Christianity and Islam. It sees the world as the creation of a living god and the Jews are his chosen people. Central is the idea of the covenant made between God and Abraham,

……… of the Jews. The first five books of the …… Bible, the Pentateuch (also the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy), constituted the Torah, or law, which is the …… of this religion. It contains a history of the Jews until the ……… of Moses, the Ten …… and a corpus of ritual and ethical precepts. The Torah is supplemented by a body of oral traditions and ……… and instructions, the Talmud. An important weekly

……… is Sabbath. Others are Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur, Hanuka. Jewish food must be ………, which means that it is to ……… the requirements of the Jewish Law.

Jewish sects at the time of Jesus Christ

Important groups that were ……… during those times were the Sadducees, the Pharisees, Essenes, and Zealots.

The Sadducees, priests in the Temple in Jerusalem, were members of a Jewish sect that denied the………. of the dead, the existence of…………, and the obligation of oral tradition, emphasizing acceptance of the written Law only.

The Pharisees, teachers of the Law in the synagogues, are held to have pretensions to superior sanctity. They are seemed to have been less hostile than the Sadducees to the nascent Church, with whom they shared ……… in the resurrection.

Zealots were members of the sect aiming at a world Jewish theocracy and resisting the Romans until A.D. 70.

Task 2. Translate from Russian into English.

Иудаизм – первая монотеистическая религия, одна из немногих рели- гий древнего мира, сохранившаяся до наших дней с небольшими измене- ниями. Иудаизм называют иногда религией Моисея – “Моисеевым зако- ном” – по имени духовного и политического лидера евреев, которому, как утверждает библейское придание, были дарованы Божьи заповеди, став- шие основой иудаистского учения. Иудаизм является национальной рели- гией евреев, насчитывая около 20 млн последователей в различных стра- нах мира.

Само название “еврей” появилось после уничтожения Иудейского царства римлянами в I в. до н. э. Оно происходит от слова “иври”, т. е. люди, обреченные на бродяжничество.

Древняя история еврейского народа наполнена постоянной борьбой за этническую самобытность и политическую независимость. В истории ста- новления иудаизма можно выделить четыре этапа. Древний период – ста- новление монотеизма, связанного с культом Яхве. Он начинается пример- но в XV–XIV вв. до н. э. с образованием Израильского царства. Следую- щий этап – палестинский период. В это время происходит формирования иудаистской религиозной традиции. Ее носителями являлись служители иудаистского храма, многочисленные пророки, предсказатели. Значитель- ным событием стала религиозная реформация царя Иосии (621 г. до н. э.), когда были удалены из Иерусалимского храма предметы культа всех дру- гих богов, кроме Яхве. Палестинский период завершается вавилонской аг- рессией против Иудейского царства, завоеванием Иерусалима и разруше- нием храма.

Третий период называют обычно эпохой “второго храма”. Он начина- ется с возвращением иудеев из вавилонского плена в 538 г. до н. э. и вос- становлением Иерусалимского храма.

В новом еврейском государстве канонизируется Пятикнижие (Тора). Эпоха “второго храма” завершается римским завоеванием Палестины, вторичным разрушением Иерусалимского храма в 70 г. н. э. и насильст- венным выселением евреев с исторической родины.

История становления религии иудаизма завершается так называемым “периодом диаспоры” (рассеяния) – I–V вв. н. э. Лишенные государствен- ности и рассеянные на значительные территории Римской империи, евреи создают в местах поселения синагоги – молитвенные дома. В диаспоре за- вершается формирование и канонизация Талмуда.

UNIT FOUR

Part I

Islam

Islam, the Arabic word for “submission” to the will of God (Allah), is the name of the religion originating in Arabia during the 7th century A.D. through the Prophet Mohammed. Followers of Islam are known as Muslims, or Moslems, and their religion embraces every aspect of life. They believe that individuals, societies, and governments should all be obedient to the will of God as it is set forth in the Koran, which they regard as the Word of God revealed to his Messenger, Mohammed. The Koran teaches that God is one and has no partners. He is the Creator of all things, and holds absolute power over them. All persons should commit themselves to lives of grateful and praise-giving obedience to God, for on the Day of Resurrection they will be judged. Those who have obeyed God’s commandments will dwell forever in paradise, but those who have sinned against God and not repented will be condemned eternally to the fires of hell. Since the beginning of creation God has sent prophets, including Moses and Jesus, to provide the guidance necessary for the attainment of eternal reward, a succession culminating in the revelation to Mohammed of the perfect word of God.

Shari’a is the sacred law of Islam, and applies to all aspects of life, not just religious practices. It describes the Islamic way of life, and prescribes the way for a Muslim to fulfill the commands of God and reach heaven. There is an annual cycle of festivals, including Hijra, the beginning of the Islamic year, and Ramadan, the month during which Muslims fast during the hours of daylight. There is no organized priesthood, and ‘great respect is accorded the Hashim family, descendants of Mohammed, and other publicly acknowledged holy scholars and teachers.

Task 1. Find the words that mean the same as the following:

–behaviour that is against the principles of morality.

–to take smb\ smth. Into one’s arms, as a sign of affection or to accept, make use of … .

–smth. treated with great respect or reverence.

–a state in which people can no longer do what they want because of being under control of someone else.

–to go without food or without certain kinds of food.

–supporter, disciple, pursuer.

–to say, with authority, what course of action is to be followed.

–doing, willing to do, what one is told to do.

–achieving of the aim or a skill you have learnt on achievement you have

made.

–live, have as one’s home.

–place of punishment after death.

–person who teaches religion and claims that his teaching comes to him directly from God.

–place of perfect happiness; the Garden of Eden.

Task 2. Match the words in the box with their definitions.

–The Arabic name of the Supreme Being.

–One who adheres to Islam and surrenders to the will of Allah.

–The sacred book of the Mohammedans, containing the professed revelations of Allah to Mohammed.

–The Arabian city, birthplace of Mohammed, to which the Mohammedans

turn in prayer and resort in pilgrimage.

–The Arabic word for “submission” to the will of God, the name of the religion originating in Arabia through the Prophet Mohammed.

–The ninth month of the Mohammedan year, the great annual Mohammedan fast, kept throughout the entire month from sunrise to sunset.

–The sacred law of Islam.

Task 3. Fill in the blanks, using the following words: embrace, regard, sin, fast, judge.

a)They greeted us with warm … . We … each other.

b)I … it as one of my masterpieces. My … for grew day by day.

c)You have … against the Lord. They believed they were being punished for their … .

d)He … for a whole day every week. During my … I lost fifteen pounds.

e)… Arnason set Miss Davis free on bail. I am not in a position to … .

Task 4. Complete each of the sentences below with the synonym of one of the following words: holy, compulsory, submissive, praiseworthy, principal, superhuman, essential.

– The … beliefs of Islam are contained in the creed: “There is no god but God and Muhammad is the Prophet of God”.