- •1. Kinds of nouns
- •2. Gender
- •3. Plurals
- •4. Uncountable nouns
- •5. Possessive case
- •Adjectives
- •1. Kinds of adjectives
- •2. Participles used as adjectives
- •3. Position of adjectives: attributive and predicative use
- •9. Comparison of adjectives
- •Adverbs
- •1. Kinds of adverbs
- •2. Form and use
- •3. Some words are both adjectives and adverbs:
- •4. Comparative and superlative adverb forms
- •5. Constructions with comparisons.
- •6. Position of adverbs
- •3. Uses of the Present Continuous Tense
- •4. Verbs not normally used in the Continuous Tenses
- •5. See, feel, look, smell and taste used in the continuous
- •6. The Continuous and Non-Continuous Uses of Certain Verbs
- •The simple present tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Spelling Notes
- •3. Uses of the Simple Present Tense
- •4. Other Uses of the Simple Present Tense
- •The past and perfect tenses the simple past tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Spelling Notes
- •3. Uses of the Past Simple Tense
- •4. Used to Indicating Past Habit
- •The past continuous tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Main Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
- •3. Other Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
- •The present perfect tense (simple and continuous)
- •1. Form
- •2. The Present Perfect Used for Past Actions Whose Time is not Definite
- •3. The Present Perfect Used for Actions Occurring in an Incomplete Period
- •4. The Present Perfect (Simple and Continuous) Used for Actions and Situations Continuing up to the Present
- •5. Special Structures in the Present Perfect
- •The past perfect tense (simple, continuous)
- •1. Form
- •3. Past and Past Perfect Tenses in Time Clauses.
- •4. Past Perfect Tense in Main Clause
- •The future
- •1. Future Forms
- •2. The simple present used for the future
- •4. The Present Continuous as a Future Form
- •5. The be going to form
- •6. The Future Simple
- •7. The Future Continuous
- •8. The Future Perfect
- •9. The Future Perfect Continuous
- •The passive voice
- •1. Form
- •2. Various Structures Expressed in the Passive
- •3. Active Tenses and Their Passive Equivalents
- •4. Get in the Passive
- •5. Questions in the passive
- •6. Uses of the Passive: Active or Passive
- •7. The Passive is Used:
- •8. Passive Sentences with or without by:
- •9. Passive with the Verbs Having Two Objects
- •10. Special Passive Patterns
- •11. Verbs Which Cannot be Used in the Passive
- •1. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: General
- •2. Modal Auxiliary Verbs With Perfect Infinitives
- •3. Can, could and be able for ability
- •4. May and Can for Permission
- •5. May and Can for Possibility
- •6. Could as an Alternative to May/Might
- •7. Can in Interrogative and Negative Sentences
- •8. Can Used to Express ‘Theoretical Possibility’
- •9. Set Phrases with Can, May, Might
- •10. Must and Have for Deduction and Assumption
- •11. Must and have to: forms
- •12. Difference between have to and have got to Forms
- •13. Difference between must and have to in the Affirmative
- •14. Need not and must not in the Present and Future
- •15. Must, have to and need in the Interrogative
- •17. Needn’t have done Compared with didn’t have/need to do
- •18. Ought and Should for Obligation
- •The infinitive
- •1. Forms
- •2. Infinitive without to
- •3. The Infinitive Represented by its to
- •4. Split Infinitives
- •5. The Infinitive Used as a Connective Link
- •6. Functions of the infinitive
- •7. The Infinitive as Subject of a Sentence
- •8. The Infinitive as Complement of a Verb
- •9. The Infinitive as Object of a Verb
- •10. The Infinitive as Object of an Adjective
- •11. The Infinitive after Interrogative Conjunction
- •12. The Infinitive as Adverbial Modifier
- •A. TheInfinitive as Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
- •B. The Infinitive asAdverbial Modifier of Result
- •13. The Infinitive as Attribute
- •14. Active and Passive Infinitive with Similar Meaning
- •15. Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •16. Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •19. The Infinitive as Parenthesis
- •The gerund
- •1. Form and Use
- •2. Functions of the Gerund
- •3. Verbs Followed by the Gerund
- •Note that:
- •5. Gerunds after Prepositions
- •6. The Verb mind
- •7. Gerunds with Passive Meaning
- •8. The Gerund: Special Cases
- •Infinitive and gerund constructions
- •1. Verbs and Adjectives Which May Take either Infinitive or Gerund
- •M. Accustomed, afraid, ashamed, certain, interested, sorry, sure, used
- •The participles
- •1. The Present (or Active) Participle
- •2. Present Participle after verbs of sensation
- •I saw him enter the room, unlock a drawer, take out a document, photograph it and put it back.
- •4. Go, come, spend, waste, be busy
- •5. A present participle phrase replacing a main clause
- •6. A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate clause
- •7. The perfect participle (active)
- •8. The past participle (passive) and the perfect participle (passive)
- •9. Participles used as adjectives before and after nouns
- •10. Misrelated participles
- •Reported speech
- •1. Main points
- •2. Statements in reported speech 1. If you want to report a statement, you use a ‘that’-clause after certain verbs. The most useful are:
- •Tense changes
- •Indirect speech is usually introduced by a verb in the past tense. Verbs in the reported clause have to be changed into a corresponding ‘more past’ tense.
- •1. Past Simple and Past Continuous in time clauses do not normally change. The verb in the main clause can either remain unchanged or become the past perfect:
- •5. Time and place expressions in reported speech
- •6. Modals in reported speech
- •7. Reported questions
- •8. Questions beginning Shall I/we…? Such questions can be of different types:
- •9. Reported orders/requests/advice/suggestions, etc.
- •14. Let’s, let him/them in indirect speech 1. Let’s usually expresses a suggestion and is reported by suggest in reported speech:
- •15. Exclamations and yes/no
- •16. Reported speech: mixed types
- •Contents
14. Let’s, let him/them in indirect speech 1. Let’s usually expresses a suggestion and is reported by suggest in reported speech:
He said, ‘Let’s take a taxi to the station’.
He suggested taking a taxi to the station
or He suggested that they/we should take a taxi to the station.
But let’s not used alone in answer to an affirmative suggestion is often reported by some phrase such as opposed the idea/was against it/objected.
‘Let’s celebrate the wedding,’ said Tom. ‘Let’s not,’ said Ann.
Tom suggested celebrating the wedding but Ann was against it.
2. Let him/them
a) usually it expresses a command:
‘Let the boys clear up the mess in their room,’ said the father.
The father said the boys were to clear up the mess in their room.
but very often the speaker has no authority over the person who is to obey the command:
‘It’s not my business,’ said the clerk. ‘Let the director do something about it.’
He said that it wasn’t his business and that the director ought to/should do something about it.
b) sometimes it is more a suggestion than a command. In such cases it is usually reported by suggest, or say + should:
She said, ‘Let them go to the police. They’ll be able to help them.’
She suggested their/them going to the police...
She suggested that they should go to the police...
She said that they should go to the police.
c) let him/them can also indicate the speaker’s indifference:
The neighbours will complain,’ said Ann. - ‘Let them (complain),’ said Tom.
Tom expressed indifference
or Tom said he didn’t mind (if they complained).
3. let is also an ordinary verb meaning allow/permit:
‘Let him come with us, mother,’ I said.
I asked my mother to let him come with us.
15. Exclamations and yes/no
А. Exclamations usually become statements in reported speech. The exclamation mark disappears.
1. Exclamations beginning What (a)... or How... can be reported
a) by exclaim/say that:
He said, ‘What a disgusting smell!’ or ‘How disgusting!’
He exclaimed that it was a disgusting smell /was disgusting.
or b) by give an exclamation of delight/disgust/horror/relief/surprise etc.
c) If an exclamation is followed by an action we can use the construction
with an exclamation of delight/disgust etc. + he/she etc + verb
2. Other types of exclamation, such as Good! Marvelous! Splendid! Heavens! Oh! Ugh! etc. can be reported as in (b) or (c) above:
‘Good! he exclaimed. He gave an exclamation of pleasure/satisfaction.
‘Ugh!’ she exclaimed and turned the programme off.
With an exclamation of disgust she turned the programme off.
Other examples:
He said, ‘Thank you!’ = He thanked me.
He said, ‘Curse this rain!’ = He cursed the fog.
He said, ‘Good luck!’ = He wished me luck.
He said, ‘Congratulations!’ = He congratulated me.
He said, ‘Liar!’ = He called me a liar.
He said, ‘Damn!’ etc. = He swore.
The notice said: WELCOME TO THE CONGRESS!
The notice welcomed the members of the congress.
В. yes and no are expressed in reported speech by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb:
He said, ‘Can you dive? and I said ‘No’
He asked (me) if I could dive and I said I couldn’t.
He said, ‘Will you have time to help me?’ and I said ‘Yes’
He asked if I would have time to help him and I said that I would.