- •Preface
- •Approach and Pedagogy
- •Chapter 1
- •Introducing Psychology
- •1.1 Psychology as a Science
- •The Problem of Intuition
- •Research Focus: Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own Name
- •Why Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods
- •Levels of Explanation in Psychology
- •The Challenges of Studying Psychology
- •1.2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions
- •Early Psychologists
- •Structuralism: Introspection and the Awareness of Subjective Experience
- •Functionalism and Evolutionary Psychology
- •Psychodynamic Psychology
- •Behaviorism and the Question of Free Will
- •Research Focus: Do We Have Free Will?
- •The Cognitive Approach and Cognitive Neuroscience
- •The War of the Ghosts
- •Social-Cultural Psychology
- •The Many Disciplines of Psychology
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: How to Effectively Learn and Remember
- •1.3 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 2
- •Psychological Science
- •Psychological Journals
- •2.1 Psychologists Use the Scientific Method to Guide Their Research
- •The Scientific Method
- •Laws and Theories as Organizing Principles
- •The Research Hypothesis
- •Conducting Ethical Research
- •Characteristics of an Ethical Research Project Using Human Participants
- •Ensuring That Research Is Ethical
- •Research With Animals
- •APA Guidelines on Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research
- •Descriptive Research: Assessing the Current State of Affairs
- •Correlational Research: Seeking Relationships Among Variables
- •Experimental Research: Understanding the Causes of Behavior
- •Research Focus: Video Games and Aggression
- •2.3 You Can Be an Informed Consumer of Psychological Research
- •Threats to the Validity of Research
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Critically Evaluating the Validity of Websites
- •2.4 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 3
- •Brains, Bodies, and Behavior
- •Did a Neurological Disorder Cause a Musician to Compose Boléro and an Artist to Paint It 66 Years Later?
- •3.1 The Neuron Is the Building Block of the Nervous System
- •Neurons Communicate Using Electricity and Chemicals
- •Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron
- •Neurotransmitters: The Body’s Chemical Messengers
- •3.2 Our Brains Control Our Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior
- •The Old Brain: Wired for Survival
- •The Cerebral Cortex Creates Consciousness and Thinking
- •Functions of the Cortex
- •The Brain Is Flexible: Neuroplasticity
- •Research Focus: Identifying the Unique Functions of the Left and Right Hemispheres Using Split-Brain Patients
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Why Are Some People Left-Handed?
- •3.3 Psychologists Study the Brain Using Many Different Methods
- •Lesions Provide a Picture of What Is Missing
- •Recording Electrical Activity in the Brain
- •Peeking Inside the Brain: Neuroimaging
- •Research Focus: Cyberostracism
- •3.4 Putting It All Together: The Nervous System and the Endocrine System
- •Electrical Control of Behavior: The Nervous System
- •The Body’s Chemicals Help Control Behavior: The Endocrine System
- •3.5 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 4
- •Sensing and Perceiving
- •Misperception by Those Trained to Accurately Perceive a Threat
- •4.1 We Experience Our World Through Sensation
- •Sensory Thresholds: What Can We Experience?
- •Link
- •Measuring Sensation
- •Research Focus: Influence without Awareness
- •4.2 Seeing
- •The Sensing Eye and the Perceiving Visual Cortex
- •Perceiving Color
- •Perceiving Form
- •Perceiving Depth
- •Perceiving Motion
- •Beta Effect and Phi Phenomenon
- •4.3 Hearing
- •Hearing Loss
- •4.4 Tasting, Smelling, and Touching
- •Tasting
- •Smelling
- •Touching
- •Experiencing Pain
- •4.5 Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Perception
- •How the Perceptual System Interprets the Environment
- •Video Clip: The McGurk Effect
- •Video Clip: Selective Attention
- •Illusions
- •The Important Role of Expectations in Perception
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: How Understanding Sensation and Perception Can Save Lives
- •4.6 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 5
- •States of Consciousness
- •An Unconscious Killing
- •5.1 Sleeping and Dreaming Revitalize Us for Action
- •Research Focus: Circadian Rhythms Influence the Use of Stereotypes in Social Judgments
- •Sleep Stages: Moving Through the Night
- •Sleep Disorders: Problems in Sleeping
- •The Heavy Costs of Not Sleeping
- •Dreams and Dreaming
- •5.2 Altering Consciousness With Psychoactive Drugs
- •Speeding Up the Brain With Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, and Amphetamines
- •Slowing Down the Brain With Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines, and Toxic Inhalants
- •Opioids: Opium, Morphine, Heroin, and Codeine
- •Hallucinogens: Cannabis, Mescaline, and LSD
- •Why We Use Psychoactive Drugs
- •Research Focus: Risk Tolerance Predicts Cigarette Use
- •5.3 Altering Consciousness Without Drugs
- •Changing Behavior Through Suggestion: The Power of Hypnosis
- •Reducing Sensation to Alter Consciousness: Sensory Deprivation
- •Meditation
- •Video Clip: Try Meditation
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: The Need to Escape Everyday Consciousness
- •5.4 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 6
- •Growing and Developing
- •The Repository for Germinal Choice
- •6.1 Conception and Prenatal Development
- •The Zygote
- •The Embryo
- •The Fetus
- •How the Environment Can Affect the Vulnerable Fetus
- •6.2 Infancy and Childhood: Exploring and Learning
- •The Newborn Arrives With Many Behaviors Intact
- •Research Focus: Using the Habituation Technique to Study What Infants Know
- •Cognitive Development During Childhood
- •Video Clip: Object Permanence
- •Social Development During Childhood
- •Knowing the Self: The Development of the Self-Concept
- •Video Clip: The Harlows’ Monkeys
- •Video Clip: The Strange Situation
- •Research Focus: Using a Longitudinal Research Design to Assess the Stability of Attachment
- •6.3 Adolescence: Developing Independence and Identity
- •Physical Changes in Adolescence
- •Cognitive Development in Adolescence
- •Social Development in Adolescence
- •Developing Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s Theory
- •Video Clip: People Being Interviewed About Kohlberg’s Stages
- •6.4 Early and Middle Adulthood: Building Effective Lives
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: What Makes a Good Parent?
- •Physical and Cognitive Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood
- •Menopause
- •Social Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood
- •6.5 Late Adulthood: Aging, Retiring, and Bereavement
- •Cognitive Changes During Aging
- •Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
- •Social Changes During Aging: Retiring Effectively
- •Death, Dying, and Bereavement
- •6.6 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 7
- •Learning
- •My Story of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- •7.1 Learning by Association: Classical Conditioning
- •Pavlov Demonstrates Conditioning in Dogs
- •The Persistence and Extinction of Conditioning
- •The Role of Nature in Classical Conditioning
- •How Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Behavior: The Research of Thorndike and Skinner
- •Video Clip: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
- •Creating Complex Behaviors Through Operant Conditioning
- •7.3 Learning by Insight and Observation
- •Observational Learning: Learning by Watching
- •Video Clip: Bandura Discussing Clips From His Modeling Studies
- •Research Focus: The Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggression
- •7.4 Using the Principles of Learning to Understand Everyday Behavior
- •Using Classical Conditioning in Advertising
- •Video Clip: Television Ads
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Operant Conditioning in the Classroom
- •Reinforcement in Social Dilemmas
- •7.5 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 8
- •Remembering and Judging
- •She Was Certain, but She Was Wrong
- •Differences between Brains and Computers
- •Video Clip: Kim Peek
- •8.1 Memories as Types and Stages
- •Explicit Memory
- •Implicit Memory
- •Research Focus: Priming Outside Awareness Influences Behavior
- •Stages of Memory: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
- •Sensory Memory
- •Short-Term Memory
- •8.2 How We Remember: Cues to Improving Memory
- •Encoding and Storage: How Our Perceptions Become Memories
- •Research Focus: Elaboration and Memory
- •Using the Contributions of Hermann Ebbinghaus to Improve Your Memory
- •Retrieval
- •Retrieval Demonstration
- •States and Capital Cities
- •The Structure of LTM: Categories, Prototypes, and Schemas
- •The Biology of Memory
- •8.3 Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Memory and Cognition
- •Source Monitoring: Did It Really Happen?
- •Schematic Processing: Distortions Based on Expectations
- •Misinformation Effects: How Information That Comes Later Can Distort Memory
- •Overconfidence
- •Heuristic Processing: Availability and Representativeness
- •Salience and Cognitive Accessibility
- •Counterfactual Thinking
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Cognitive Biases in the Real World
- •8.4 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 9
- •Intelligence and Language
- •How We Talk (or Do Not Talk) about Intelligence
- •9.1 Defining and Measuring Intelligence
- •General (g) Versus Specific (s) Intelligences
- •Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient
- •The Biology of Intelligence
- •Is Intelligence Nature or Nurture?
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Emotional Intelligence
- •9.2 The Social, Cultural, and Political Aspects of Intelligence
- •Extremes of Intelligence: Retardation and Giftedness
- •Extremely Low Intelligence
- •Extremely High Intelligence
- •Sex Differences in Intelligence
- •Racial Differences in Intelligence
- •Research Focus: Stereotype Threat
- •9.3 Communicating With Others: The Development and Use of Language
- •The Components of Language
- •Examples in Which Syntax Is Correct but the Interpretation Can Be Ambiguous
- •The Biology and Development of Language
- •Research Focus: When Can We Best Learn Language? Testing the Critical Period Hypothesis
- •Learning Language
- •How Children Learn Language: Theories of Language Acquisition
- •Bilingualism and Cognitive Development
- •Can Animals Learn Language?
- •Video Clip: Language Recognition in Bonobos
- •Language and Perception
- •9.4 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 10
- •Emotions and Motivations
- •Captain Sullenberger Conquers His Emotions
- •10.1 The Experience of Emotion
- •Video Clip: The Basic Emotions
- •The Cannon-Bard and James-Lange Theories of Emotion
- •Research Focus: Misattributing Arousal
- •Communicating Emotion
- •10.2 Stress: The Unseen Killer
- •The Negative Effects of Stress
- •Stressors in Our Everyday Lives
- •Responses to Stress
- •Managing Stress
- •Emotion Regulation
- •Research Focus: Emotion Regulation Takes Effort
- •10.3 Positive Emotions: The Power of Happiness
- •Finding Happiness Through Our Connections With Others
- •What Makes Us Happy?
- •10.4 Two Fundamental Human Motivations: Eating and Mating
- •Eating: Healthy Choices Make Healthy Lives
- •Obesity
- •Sex: The Most Important Human Behavior
- •The Experience of Sex
- •The Many Varieties of Sexual Behavior
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Regulating Emotions to Improve Our Health
- •10.5 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 11
- •Personality
- •Identical Twins Reunited after 35 Years
- •11.1 Personality and Behavior: Approaches and Measurement
- •Personality as Traits
- •Example of a Trait Measure
- •Situational Influences on Personality
- •The MMPI and Projective Tests
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Leaders and Leadership
- •11.2 The Origins of Personality
- •Psychodynamic Theories of Personality: The Role of the Unconscious
- •Id, Ego, and Superego
- •Research Focus: How the Fear of Death Causes Aggressive Behavior
- •Strengths and Limitations of Freudian and Neo-Freudian Approaches
- •Focusing on the Self: Humanism and Self-Actualization
- •Research Focus: Self-Discrepancies, Anxiety, and Depression
- •Studying Personality Using Behavioral Genetics
- •Studying Personality Using Molecular Genetics
- •Reviewing the Literature: Is Our Genetics Our Destiny?
- •11.4 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 12
- •Defining Psychological Disorders
- •When Minor Body Imperfections Lead to Suicide
- •12.1 Psychological Disorder: What Makes a Behavior “Abnormal”?
- •Defining Disorder
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Combating the Stigma of Abnormal Behavior
- •Diagnosing Disorder: The DSM
- •Diagnosis or Overdiagnosis? ADHD, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger’s Disorder
- •Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
- •Autistic Disorder and Asperger’s Disorder
- •12.2 Anxiety and Dissociative Disorders: Fearing the World Around Us
- •Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- •Panic Disorder
- •Phobias
- •Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
- •Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- •Dissociative Disorders: Losing the Self to Avoid Anxiety
- •Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue
- •Dissociative Identity Disorder
- •Explaining Anxiety and Dissociation Disorders
- •12.3 Mood Disorders: Emotions as Illness
- •Behaviors Associated with Depression
- •Dysthymia and Major Depressive Disorder
- •Bipolar Disorder
- •Explaining Mood Disorders
- •Research Focus: Using Molecular Genetics to Unravel the Causes of Depression
- •12.4 Schizophrenia: The Edge of Reality and Consciousness
- •Symptoms of Schizophrenia
- •Explaining Schizophrenia
- •12.5 Personality Disorders
- •Borderline Personality Disorder
- •Research Focus: Affective and Cognitive Deficits in BPD
- •Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)
- •12.6 Somatoform, Factitious, and Sexual Disorders
- •Somatoform and Factitious Disorders
- •Sexual Disorders
- •Disorders of Sexual Function
- •Paraphilias
- •12.7 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 13
- •Treating Psychological Disorders
- •Therapy on Four Legs
- •13.1 Reducing Disorder by Confronting It: Psychotherapy
- •DSM-IV-TR Criteria for Diagnosing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Seeking Treatment for Psychological Difficulties
- •Psychodynamic Therapy
- •Important Characteristics and Experiences in Psychoanalysis
- •Humanistic Therapies
- •Behavioral Aspects of CBT
- •Cognitive Aspects of CBT
- •Combination (Eclectic) Approaches to Therapy
- •13.2 Reducing Disorder Biologically: Drug and Brain Therapy
- •Drug Therapies
- •Using Stimulants to Treat ADHD
- •Antidepressant Medications
- •Antianxiety Medications
- •Antipsychotic Medications
- •Direct Brain Intervention Therapies
- •13.3 Reducing Disorder by Changing the Social Situation
- •Group, Couples, and Family Therapy
- •Self-Help Groups
- •Community Mental Health: Service and Prevention
- •Some Risk Factors for Psychological Disorders
- •Research Focus: The Implicit Association Test as a Behavioral Marker for Suicide
- •13.4 Evaluating Treatment and Prevention: What Works?
- •Effectiveness of Psychological Therapy
- •Research Focus: Meta-Analyzing Clinical Outcomes
- •Effectiveness of Biomedical Therapies
- •Effectiveness of Social-Community Approaches
- •13.5 Chapter Summary
- •Chapter 14
- •Psychology in Our Social Lives
- •Binge Drinking and the Death of a Homecoming Queen
- •14.1 Social Cognition: Making Sense of Ourselvesand Others
- •Perceiving Others
- •Forming Judgments on the Basis of Appearance: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination
- •Implicit Association Test
- •Research Focus: Forming Judgments of People in Seconds
- •Close Relationships
- •Causal Attribution: Forming Judgments by Observing Behavior
- •Attitudes and Behavior
- •14.2 Interacting With Others: Helping, Hurting, and Conforming
- •Helping Others: Altruism Helps Create Harmonious Relationships
- •Why Are We Altruistic?
- •How the Presence of Others Can Reduce Helping
- •Video Clip: The Case of Kitty Genovese
- •Human Aggression: An Adaptive yet Potentially Damaging Behavior
- •The Ability to Aggress Is Part of Human Nature
- •Negative Experiences Increase Aggression
- •Viewing Violent Media Increases Aggression
- •Video Clip
- •Research Focus: The Culture of Honor
- •Conformity and Obedience: How Social Influence Creates Social Norms
- •Video Clip
- •Do We Always Conform?
- •14.3 Working With Others: The Costs and Benefits of Social Groups
- •Working in Front of Others: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition
- •Working Together in Groups
- •Psychology in Everyday Life: Do Juries Make Good Decisions?
- •Using Groups Effectively
- •14.4 Chapter Summary
antipsychotics treat more symptoms with fewer side effects than older medications do (Casey, 1996). [12]
Direct Brain Intervention Therapies
In cases of severe disorder it may be desirable to directly influence brain activity through electrical activation of the brain or through brain surgery.Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a medical procedure designed to alleviate psychological disorder in which electric currents are passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure (Figure 13.7 "Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)"). ECT has been used since the 1930s to treat severe depression.
When it was first developed, the procedure involved strapping the patient to a table before the electricity was administered. The patient was knocked out by the shock, went into severe convulsions, and awoke later, usually without any memory of what had happened. Today ECT is used only in the most severe cases when all other treatments have failed, and the practice is more humane. The patient is first given muscle relaxants and a general anesthesia, and precisely calculated electrical currents are used to achieve the most benefit with the fewest possible risks.
ECT is very effective; about 80% of people who undergo three sessions of ECT report dramatic relief from their depression. ECT reduces suicidal thoughts and is assumed to have prevented many suicides (Kellner et al., 2005). [13] On the other hand, the positive effects of ECT do not always last; over one-half of patients who undergo ECT experience relapse within one year, although antidepressant medication can help reduce this outcome (Sackheim et al.,
2001). [14] ECT may also cause short-term memory loss or cognitive impairment (Abrams, 1997;
Sackheim et al., 2007). [15]
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Figure 13.7 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Today’s ECT uses precisely calculated electrical currents to achieve the most benefit with the fewest possible risks.
Although ECT continues to be used, newer approaches to treating chronic depression are also being developed. A newer and gentler method of brain stimulation
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is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a medical procedure designed to reduce psychological disorder that uses a pulsing magnetic coil to electrically stimulate the brain (Figure 13.8 "Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)"). TMS seems to work by
activating neural circuits in the prefrontal cortex, which is less active in people with depression, causing an elevation of mood. TMS can be performed without sedation, does not cause seizures or memory loss, and may be as effective as ECT (Loo, Schweitzer, & Pratt, 2006; Rado, Dowd, & Janicak, 2008). [16] TMS has also been used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia.
Figure 13.8 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
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TMS is a noninvasive procedure that uses a pulsing magnetic coil to electrically stimulate the brain. Recently, TMS
has been used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Still other biomedical therapies are being developed for people with severe depression that persists over years. One approach involves implanting a device in the chest that stimulates the vagus nerve, a major nerve that descends from the brain stem toward the heart (Corcoran, Thomas, Phillips, & O’Keane, 2006; Nemeroff et al., 2006). [17] When the vagus nerve is stimulated by the device, it activates brain structures that are less active in severely depressed people.
Psychosurgery, that is, surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in the hope of improving disorder, is reserved for the most severe cases. The most well-known psychosurgery is
the prefrontal lobotomy. Developed in 1935 by Nobel Prize winner Egas Moniz to treat severe phobias and anxiety, the procedure destroys the connections between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain. Lobotomies were performed on thousands of patients. The procedure— which was never validated scientifically—left many patients in worse condition than before, subjecting the already suffering patients and their families to further heartbreak (Valenstein, 1986). [18] Perhaps the most notable failure was the lobotomy performed on Rosemary Kennedy, the sister of President John F. Kennedy, which left her severely incapacitated.
There are very few centers that still conduct psychosurgery today, and when such surgeries are performed they are much more limited in nature and calledcingulotomy (Dougherty et al., 2002). [19] The ability to more accurately image and localize brain structures using modern neuroimaging techniques suggests that new, more accurate, and more beneficial developments in psychosurgery may soon be available (Sachdev & Chen, 2009). [20]
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
•Psychostimulants are commonly prescribed to reduce the symptoms of ADHD.
•Antipsychotic drugs play a crucial role in the treatment of schizophrenia. They do not cure schizophrenia, but they help reduce the positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms, making it easier to live with the disease.
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•Antidepressant drugs are used in the treatment of depression, anxiety, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. They gradually elevate mood by working to balance neurotransmitters in the CNS. The most commonly prescribed antidepressants are the SSRIs.
•Antianxiety drugs (tranquilizers) relieve apprehension, tension, and nervousness and are prescribed for people with diagnoses of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and panic disorder. The drugs are effective but have severe side effects including dependence and withdrawal symptoms.
•Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a controversial procedure used to treat severe depression, in which electric currents are passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure.
•A newer method of brain stimulation is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a noninvasive procedure that
employs a pulsing magnetic coil to electrically stimulate the brain.
E X E R C I S E S A N D C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G
1.What are your opinions about taking drugs to improve psychological disorders? Would you take an antidepressant or antianxiety medication if you were feeling depressed or anxious? Do you think children with ADHD should be given stimulants? Why or why not?
2.Based on what you have just read, would you be willing to undergo ECT or TMS if you were chronically depressed and drug therapy had failed? Why or why not?
[1]Biedermann, F., & Fleischhacker, W. W. (2009). Antipsychotics in the early stage of development. Current Opinion Psychiatry, 22, 326–330.
[2]Greenhill, L. L., Halperin, J. M., & Abikof, H. (1999). Stimulant medications. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(5), 503–512.
[3]Zahn, T. P., Rapoport, J. L., & Thompson, C. L. (1980). Autonomic and behavioral effects of dextroamphetamine and placebo in normal and hyperactive prepubertal boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8(2), 145–160.
[4]Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., Harding, M., & O'Donnell, D. (1996). Growth deficits in ADHD children revisited: Evidence for disorder-associated growth delays? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(11), 1460–1469.
[5]Fraser, A. R. (2000). Antidepressant choice to minimize treatment resistance. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 493; Hollon, S. D., Thase, M. E., & Markowitz, J. C. (2002). Treatment and prevention of depression. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 3, 39–77.
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[6]Healy, D., & Whitaker, C. J. (2003). Antidepressants and suicide: Risk-benefit conundrums. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 28, 331–339; Simon, G. E. (2006). The antidepressant quandary—Considering suicide risk when treating adolescent depression.The New England Journal of Medicine, 355, 2722–2723; Simon, G. E., Savarino, J., Operskalski, B., & Wang, P. S. (2006). Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment.American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 41–47. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.41
[7]McElroy, S. L., & Keck, P. E. (2000). Pharmacologic agents for the treatment of acute bipolar mania. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 539–557.
[8]Kowatch, R. A., Suppes, T., Carmody, T. J., Bucci, J. P., Hume, J. H., Kromelis, M.,…Rush, A. J. (2000). Effect size of lithium, divalproex sodium, and carbamazepine in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 713–20.
[9]Otto, M. W., Pollack, M. H., Sachs, G. S., Reiter, S. R., Meltzer-Brody, S., & Rosenbaum, J. F. (1993). Discontinuation of benzodiazepine treatment: Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for patients with panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1485–1490.
[10]Marangell, L. B., Silver, J. M., Goff, D. C., & Yudofsky, S. C. (2003). Psychopharmacology and electroconvulsive therapy. In R. E. Hales & S. C. Yudofsky (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of clinical psychiatry (4th ed., pp. 1047–1149). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
[11]National Institute of Mental Health. (2008). Mental health medications (NIH Publication No. 08-3929). Retrieved
fromhttp://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/mental-health-medications/complete-index.shtml#pub4
[12]Casey, D. E. (1996). Side effect profiles of new antipsychotic agents. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(Suppl. 11), 40–45.
[13]Kellner, C. H., Fink, M., Knapp, R., Petrides, G., Husain, M., Rummans, T.,…Malur, C. (2005). Relief of expressed suicidal intent by ECT: A consortium for research in ECT study.The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(5), 977–982.
[14]Sackheim, H. A., Haskett, R. F., Mulsant, B. H., Thase, M. E., Mann, J. J., Pettinati, H.,…Prudic, J. (2001). Continuation pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 1299–1307.
[15]Abrams, R. (1997). Electroconvulsive therapy (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; Sackeim, H. A., Prudic, J., Fuller, R., Keilp, J., Philip, W., Lavori, P. W., & Olfson, M. (2007). The cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy in community settings. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 244–254. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301180
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