§2. Translating the definite article

The definite article is usually used in one of the two functions:

• specifying

• generic

The specifying article specifies the definite object, either known to the speaker and listener or inferred from the situation. In this case it is often compensated by a Russian pronoun (вот) этот, (вон) тот, тот самый: Here is the man we are looking for. – Вот тот человек, которого мы ищем. Sometimes in Russian the specifying function is not expressed; in this case a zero transformation takes place: This is the house that Jack built. – Вот дом, который построил Джек. (Though not verbalized, the specifying function is implied here and can be easily compensated: Вот этот дом, который построил Джек.) The definite article can also be compensated by a possessive pronoun: “How's the leg today, Mrs. Steel?” “Not too bad, thank you, doctor.” – «Как ваша нога сегодня?» «Спасибо, доктор, неплохо.» The specifying article can also be compensated by the adjectives известный, данный, вышеупомянутый, вышеуказанный or some others according to the context: P. Tchaikovsky, the great Russian composer, is loved all over the world. – П. Чайковского, известного русского композитора, любят во всем мире. You don’t mean you met the Richard Gere, do you? – Ты хочешь сказать, что встретила того самого Ричарда Гира, известного всему миру актера?

The generic definite article helps to designate a class as a whole. As such it is often translated by substituting the noun in the singular with that in the plural: The olive grows only in warm climates. – Оливки растут только в теплом климате.

The article in this function can also be compensated by the noun семья or its synonym when used with the name of the family: The Schmidts are coming to lunch on Saturday. – В субботу к нам на обед придет чета Шмидтов.

When used with the substantivized adjectives, the definite article denotes the plural (referring to people or things in general): The absent are never without fault. Nor the present without excuse. – У отсутствующих всегда найдется какая-нибудь вина. Как у присутствующих – какое-нибудь оправдание. It may denote the singular when referring to some abstract thing: I suppose we’ll just have to wait for the inevitable. – Думаю, нам только остается ждать неизбежного.

§3. Translating the zero article

The main functions of the zero article are as follows:

• generalizing

• totalizing

• qualifying

• individualizing

The generalizing zero article indicates an abstract notion expressed by the noun rather than a concrete object. Therefore, it can be compensated by the following words: вообще, как таковой, if any: Woman is physically weaker than man. – Женщина вообще физически слабее мужчины. Life is short. – Жизнь (как таковая) коротка.

When usage of the zero article with the noun in the plural is close to that of the classifying indefinite article with the noun in the singular, the compensating pronoun все can be used: Museums are closed on Mondays. – В понедельник закрыты все музеи.

The totalizing zero article indicates that two or more objects are considered as a single unit, as a whole.¹³⁴As such, the sentence can be translated either word for word or with the help of a resumptive word:He gave us ink, paper and pen and asked us to put down everything we could remember about the accident.¹³⁵– Он дал нам ручку, чернила и бумагу и попросил написать все, что мы могли вспомнить об этом несчастном случае. Он дал нам все, что нужно для письма: ручку, чернила и бумагу - и попросил написать все, что вспомним об этом несчастном случае.

The qualifying zero article is used with the nouns referring to action, state, and /or quality rather than object: I’m really tired and I’m going to bed. – Я действительно устала и собираюсь лечь спать. He was soldier enough to fight that battle to its bitter end. – У него было достаточно мужества, чтобы выдержать битву до ее горького конца. He translated word for word. – Он все перевел дословно. Thus, to translate a sentence with the qualifying article, we often have to resort to substitution of a part of speech.

The individualizing zero article should be taken into account, first and foremost, in translating from Russian into English. It is common knowledge that no article is used with proper nouns. However, this article can also be characteristics of common nouns, referring to members of one’s own family (in this case, the nouns are usually capitalized): I hope Uncle will not be late, because Grandmother is rather tired and so is Mother. – Надеюсь, что дядя не опоздает, так как бабушка довольно устала, и мама тоже. The article, thus, helps to understand whose family is meant, the speaker’s or somebody else’s: The puppies looked just like the neighbor’s dog, so we assumed it was the father. – Щенята были очень похожи на соседского пса, поэтому мы предположили, что это был их отец.

The individualizing zero article is also typical of address: Почему ты плачешь, девочка? – Why do you cry, little girl? This article is also used with nouns modified by postpositional cardinal numerals: Откройте книги на странице 20. – Please open your books to page 20.