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of the state. The judicial power belongs to the system of Courts comprising the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and federal courts.

The national symbols of the Russian Federation are a white-blue-red banner and a double-headed eagle.

In spite of the fact that economic situation is rather difficult nowadays we believe in the great future of Russia.

DANGEROUS ROADS

The M25, the motorway around London, opened in 1986. Today people call it the biggest car park in Europe. Every morning on the radio we hear about jams, road repairs and crashes. One day we will hear: “There is a traffic jam on the M25 in both directions. If you are driving to work, we advise you to go home”.

Winston Churchill, the prime minister of Great Britain in the XX century described the car as the curse of the century. This is also true of the XXI century. It can be funny to compare advertisements of cars with the reality of driving them. Cars are symbols of freedom and wealth. But when you are stuck (stick – застревать) in a traffic jam, all cars are just metal boxes for sitting in.

5,000 people a year are killed on British roads, and 40,000 are injured. As for children, road accidents are a major cause of death.

There are some advantages of having a car: you can drive when and where you want to, visit places of interest and carry heavy things with you. One of the disadvantages is that even if there is only one person in a car, it pollutes the air.

Many people think that if you build more roads, the traffic will move more quickly. But research shows that if there are more roads, there will be more cars on them. If the public transport system works, more people will use it. If trains carry more people, the roads will not be so crowded. The public transport also has some disadvantages: on trains and buses – public transport – you can travel only according to the time-table and on definite routes.

By 2025, parking all the cars in Britain will need an area larger than the area of London.

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WHAT IS A MANAGER?

A number of different terms (термин) are often used instead of the term “manager”, including “director”, “administrator” and “president”. The term “manager” is used more frequently in profitmaking organizations, while the others are used more widely in government and non-profit organizations such as universities, hospitals and social work agencies.

So, who do we call “manager”?

In its broad meaning the term “manager” applies to the people who are responsible for making and carrying out decisions within a certain system. A personnel manager directly supervises people in an organization. Financial manager is a person who is responsible for finance. Sales manager is responsible for selling of goods.

The work of a manager is decision-making. When a problem exists a manager has to make a decision to solve it. In decision-making there is always some uncertainty and risk.

Management is a variety of specific activities. Management is a function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling. Any managerial system, at any managerial level, is characterized in terms of these general functions.

Managing is a responsible and hard job. He should do a lot. In all types of organizations managerial efficiency depends on manager’s direct personal relationships, hard work on a variety of activities and preference for active tasks.

WHAT IS A ROBOT?

In all times nearly each production process was in need of handling operations (нуждаться в ручной обработке). At first they had to be performed by man or manual labour. The development of microprocessors, computer technologies, industrial robots, automated equipment and flexible automated systems with built-in control systems made it possible to relieve people from handling heavy loads (переноска тяжёлых грузов).

We know the prototypes of modern robots were used to transport objects over some distance, because human contact with such objects was either hazardous (рискованный) or uncomfortable. The first

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manipulators applied in the atomic industry were developed between 1940–1950. Such manipulators were also used in different areas of industry.

The first robot for industrial application appeared on the USA market in 1962. The phrase “industrial robot” is known to have appeared at the same time. In Russia the first serious results in robot design and its application in industry were achieved in the sixties. The first underwater computer-controlled automatic manipulator was designed in 1968 and the first types of modern industrial robots were developed in 1971.

Robots fill the gap between special-purpose automated machines and human labour and provide a substitute for man when the operation consists of the same basic motions every cycle. Their advantages are considered to be the ability to work for two and three shifts, to work in hazardous situations, to transfer heavy loads.

Modern industrial robots are powerful re-programmable machines of different shapes, sizes and capabilities. They increase labour productivity and solve problems of workers’ safety. They have demonstrated capability to do a lot of jobs: painting, welding, assembling and so on.

MACHINE-TOOLS

Machine-tools (станки) are used to shape metals and other materials. The material to be shaped is called the workpiece (рабочая деталь). Most machine-tools are now electrically driven. Machine-tools with electrical drive are faster and more accurate than hand tools: they were an important element in the development of mass-production processes, as they allowed individual parts to be made in large numbers so as to be interchangeable.

All machine-tools have facilities for holding both the workpiece and the tool, and for accurately controlling the movement of the cutting tool relatively to the workpiece. Most machining operations generate large amounts of heat, and cooling fluids (охлаждающие жидкости) (usually a mixture of water and oils) must be used for cooling and lubrication.

Machine-tools usually work (обрабатывать) materials mechanically but other machining methods have been developed lately. They include chemical machining, spark erosion (электроискровая

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обработка) to machine very hard materials to any shape by means of (с помощью) a continuous high-voltage discharge (высоковольтный разряд) between an electrode and a workpiece. Other machining methods include drilling using ultrasound, and cutting by means of a laser beam.

The most important machine-tool is lathe (токарный станок). It produces parts (детали) of circular cross-section by turning (с помощью вращения) the workpiece on its axis and cutting its surface with a sharp stationary tool. The tool may be moved sideways to produce a cylindrical part and moved towards the workpiece to control the depth of cut. Modern lathes are under numerical control.

Numerical control of machine-tools and flexible manufacturing systems have made it possible for complete systems of machine-tools to be used flexibly for the manufacture of a range of (целый ряд) products.

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Составители Лидия Абрамовна Бердюгина

Наталья Анатольевна Заостровская Ирина Анатольевна Заостровская

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Методические указания для выполнения контрольных работ № 1, 2

для студентов заочной формы обучения ММФ, ИЭФ, ФГО (МУ)

Рецензенты

О.А. Ставцева

Л.А. Тимошенко

Подписано в печать 14.04.2010. Формат 60Á84/16. Бумага офсетная. Отпечатано на ризографе. Уч.-изд. л. 1,8. Тираж 490 экз. Заказ ГУ КузГТУ, 650000, Кемерово, ул. Весенняя, 28.

Типография ГУ КузГТУ, 650000, Кемерово, ул. Д. Бедного, 4а.

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