- •Outlines of english lexicology
- •Introduction
- •Two Approaches to Language Study
- •Lexical Units
- •Referential Approach to meaning
- •Meaning in the Referential Approach
- •Functional Approach to Meaning
- •Types of meaning
- •Part-of-Speech Meaning
- •Emotive charge
- •Stylistic Reference
- •Change of meaning
- •Causes of semantic changes
- •Linguistic causes
- •Nature of Semantic Change
- •Results of Semantic Change
- •Changes in the denotational meaning
- •Changes in the connotational meaning
- •Interrelation of Causes, Nature and Results of Semantic Change
- •Meaning and polysemy
- •The semantic structure of polysemantic words
- •Diachronic Approach
- •Synchronic Approach
- •Polysemy and homonymy
- •Homonymy of Words and Homonymy of Word-Forms
- •Classification of homonyms
- •Graphic and Sound-Form of Homonyms
- •Sources of Homonymy
- •Word-meaning in syntagmaTlCs and paradigmatics
- •Polysemy and Context
- •Lexical context
- •Grammatical Context
- •Extra-Linguistic Context (Context of situation)
- •Common Contextual Associations. Thematic Groups
- •Meaning relations in paradigmatics and semantic classification of words
- •Conceptual (or Semantic) Fields
- •Semantic Equivalence and Synonymy
- •Patterns of Synonymic Sets in Modern English
- •Connotations of synonyms
- •Dominant synonym
- •Euphemisms
- •Semantic contrast and Antonymy
- •Word groups
- •Some basic features of word-groups
- •Grammatical Valency
- •Structure of word-groups Distribution as the Criterion of Classification
- •Meaning of word-groups
- •Lexical Meaning
- •Structural Meaning
- •Interrelation of Lexical and Structural Meaning in Word Groups
- •Motivation in Word Groups
- •Phraseological units
- •Free Word-Groups Versus Set-Phrases. Phraseological Units, Idioms, Word-Equivalents
- •1. Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation (Idiomaticity)
- •2. Criterion of Function
- •3. Criterion of Context
- •Phraseological Units and Idioms Proper
- •Classification
- •Word-structure Segmentation of Words into Morphemes
- •Principles of Morphemic Analysis. Types of Word Segmentability
- •Classification of morphemes
- •Morphemic Types of Words
- •Word-formation
- •Various ways of forming words
- •Word-formation: definition
- •Conversion
- •Synchronic Approach
- •Typical Semantic Relations
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives).
- •Diachronic Approach of Conversion. Origin
- •Word-composition
- •Structure
- •Meaning
- •Structural Meaning of the Pattern
- •The Meaning of Compounds. Motivation
- •Classification
- •Relations between the iCs of Compounds
- •Different Parts of Speech
- •Means of Composition
- •Correlation between Compounds and Free Phrases
- •Productive Types of Compound Adjectives
- •Sources of Compounds
Grammatical Context
In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (mainly the syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. One of the meanings of the verb make, e.g. 'to force, to induce' is found only in the grammatical context possessing the structure to make somebody do something or in other terms this particular meaning occurs only if the verb make is followed by a noun, and the infinitive of some other verb (to make smb. laugh, go, work, etc.), Another meaning of this verb 'to become', 'to turn out to be' is observed in the contexts of a different structure, i.e. make followed by an adjective and a noun (to make a good wife, a good teacher, etc.).
Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically (or structurally) bound meanings. Cases of the type she will make a good teacher may be referred to as syntactically bound meanings, because the syntactic function of the verb make in this particular context (a link verb, part of the predicate) is indicative of its meaning 'to become, to turn out to be'. A different syntactic function of the verb, e.g. that of the predicate (to make machines, tables, etc.) excludes the possibility of the meaning 'to become, turn out to be'.
Extra-Linguistic Context (Context of situation)
Dealing with verbal contexts we consider only linguistic factors: lexical groups of words syntactic structure of the context and so on. There are cases, however, when the meaning of the word is ultimately determined not by these linguistic factors, but by the actual speech situation in which this word is used. The meanings of the noun ring, e.g. in to give somebody a ring, or of the verb get in I've got it are determined not only by the grammatical or lexical context, but much more so by the actual speech situation.
The noun ring in such context may possess the meaning 'a circlet of precious metal' or 'a call on the telephone'; the meaning of the verb to get in this linguistic context may be interpreted as 'possess' or 'understand' depending on the actual situation in which these words are used. It should be pointed out however that such cases, though possible, are not actually very numerous. The linguistic context is by far a more potent factor in determining word-meaning.
Common Contextual Associations. Thematic Groups
Another type of classification almost universally used in practical classroom teaching is known as thematic grouping. Classification of vocabulary items into thematic groups is based on the co-occurrence of words in certain repeatedly used contexts.
In linguistic contexts co-occurrence may be observed on different levels. On the level of word-groups the word question, for instance, is often found in collocation with the verbs raise, put forward, discuss, etc., with the adjectives urgent, vital, disputable and so on.
As a rule, thematic groups deal with contexts on the level of the sentence. Words in thematic groups are joined together by common contextual associations within the framework of the sentence and reflect the interlinking of things or events. Common contextual association of the words, e.g. tree — grow — green; journey — train — taxi — bags — ticket or sunshine — brightly — blue — sky, is due to the regular co-occurrence of these words in a number of sentences. Words making up a thematic group belong to different parts of speech and do not possess any common denominator of meaning.