Гольцева О.Ю. Международное право в официальных документах. Под ред. И.А. Горшеневой

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as well as by a huge expansion of UN peacekeeping and humanitarian operations. In the early 1990s, about 40 new member countries joined the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), among them France and China. In 1995, the Treaty was extended for an indefinite time, and only five countries have remained outside it – India, Pakistan, Israel, Cuba and the Cook Islands. Seven countries gave up their military nuclear programs and the nuclear armaments they had previously possessed, while others had them removed by force (Brazil, Argentina, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, South Africa, and Iraq).

The end of the Cold War made the United States and eventually the other nuclear powers, including Russia, change their priorities. In the mid-1990s, the international security agenda focused on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles, the strengthening of the NPT regime, its institutions (IAEA) and additional agencies and mechanisms, the Missile Technology Control Regime, and export control measures. Despite great difficulties, the NPT signatories agreed in 1995 to extend the Treaty for an indefinite time. In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed, which was viewed not only as a measure of ‘vertical’ nuclear disarmament among the great powers but also as a parallel mechanism for strengthening the NPT regime, which would deny nonnuclear countries access, direct or indirect (for example, following India’s nuclear test in 1974), into the nuclear club. In 1997, the Additional Protocol to the NPT was signed, which has extended the IAEA’s right to inspect suspicious facilities in non-nuclear countries.

The horrible tragedies in New York and Washington on the morning of September 11, 2001, showed to the whole world a glimpse of the worst-possible proliferation scenario, in which nuclear weapons would fall into the hands of international terrorists who would use them to plunge the entire civilized world into shock and chaos. It seems unquestionable that further WMD proliferation and the danger of its merger with international terrorism (so called super

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terrorism or catastrophic terrorism) will continue to be a priority issue in Russian-U.S. relations, as well as in the cooperative efforts of the nuclear powers and nuclear suppliers, in UN activities, and in the practice of using force in international policies.

However, so far the policies of the great powers in these fields have been creating more problems than solutions, in other words, they are subscribing a ‘remedy’ that is worse than the disease itself. As has been mentioned above, the nuclear states’ policy was inconsistent and lacking coordination in their nuclear supplies and general political line toward ‘illegitimate’ nuclear and threshold countries. Equally problematic are Moscow’s and Washington’s positions on military nuclear programs and negotiations on the limitation and reduction of these weapons.

However, the point is not that the great powers do not formally fulfill their obligations stemming from Article VI of the NPT, which is devoted to nuclear disarmament. Contrary to popular belief, during the 1990s the U.S., Russia, Britain and France cut the number of nuclear warheads in their strategic nuclear forces by more than 50 percent, and considering reductions in their tactical nuclear forces, the nuclear arsenals of the four countries decreased by five times. The problem is that, although the great powers have been withdrawing outdated nuclear armaments from service en masse, they continue modernizing their nuclear weapons and have assigned a greater role to these weapons in their military doctrines, placing emphasis on weapon systems that are intended for real combat employment.

Despite Washington’s repeated official declarations that

Russia and the United States are no longer enemies, its effective operational plans and targets on the Russian territory for nuclear attacks have actually remained unchanged, and it continues to add an increasing number of facilities to its list of targets in China and other countries. This factor sets clear boundaries on the prospects for the elimination of nuclear weapons. This is why Washington has declined

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to reduce its strategic nuclear forces further than 2,000 warheads (plus 1,500 warheads kept in storage). Moreover, the U.S. is developing new low-yield nuclear munitions, allegedly for destroying underground targets, storage facilities and bunkers of terrorists and ‘rogue nations.’

To this end, Washington is making preparations for a possible resumption of nuclear tests in Nevada.

Alexei Arbatov, a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Director of the Center of International Security, Institute of the World Economy and International Relations, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Exercise 5. Render the following text, using the Russian word combinations below to help you and the connectors however, moreover, although, despite.

Прекратили быть врагами … идеологическое и геополитическое соперничество … годы, отмеченные беспрецедентным ростом влияния ООН … грандиозное расширение миротворческих и гуманитарных операций ООН … договор был продлен… отказались от разработки военных ядерных программ … сменить приоритеты… международная программа безопасности …несмотря на трудности… договор рассматривался не только как мера… закрыть доступ …инспектировать подозрительные объекты… попасть в руки международных террористов… кажется несомненным… совместные усилия… переговоры по сокращению ядерного оружия… (не) выполнять обязательства… отводить важную роль ядерному оружию в своих военных доктринах... устанавливать четкие границы.

Exercise 6. Translate the following noun groups into Russian.

Exercise 7. Read the article and render in Russian.

Prague, Czech Republic (CNN) – President Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev on Thursday signed a major nuclear arms control agreement that reduces the nuclear stockpiles of both nations.

The new Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) builds on a previous agreement that expired in December.

The agreement cuts the number of nuclear weapons held by the United States and Russia by about a third.

"This day demonstrates the determination of the United

States and Russia – the two nations that hold over 90 percent of the world's nuclear weapons – to pursue responsible global leadership", Obama said after the signing.

Medvedev called START a "win-win situation" for the two countries.

The new treaty … is another step in nuclear arms relations between the former Cold War adversaries. Its signing comes two days after the Obama administration announced a new U.S. nuclear weapons policy and four days before Obama convenes a summit of 47 nations on nuclear security issues.

"It significantly reduces missiles and launchers," Obama said of the new treaty, which lasts for 10 years. "It puts in place a strong and effective verification regime. And it maintains the flexibility that we need to protect and advance our national security, and to guarantee our unwavering commitment to the security of our allies".

Obama has made nuclear nonproliferation a major priority of his presidency, prompting criticism from conservatives who fear the president will weaken the U.S. nuclear deterrent against possible attack.

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According to information released by the White House, the new treaty limits both nations to "significantly fewer strategic arms within seven years" of its signing. One of the limits: 1,550 warheads.

"Warheads on deployed ICBMs [Intercontinental ballistic missiles] and deployed SLBMs [submarine-launched ballistic missiles] count toward this limit and each deployed heavy bomber equipped for nuclear armaments counts as one warhead toward this limit", the White House said.

There also are limits on launchers.

The treaty also lays out a "verification regime" that includes on-site inspections, data exchanges and notifications, the White House said.

"The treaty does not contain any constraints on testing, development or deployment of current or planned U.S. missile defense programs or current or planned United States long-range conventional strike capabilities", according to the White House.

Obama said the agreement is part of an effort to "reset" the U.S. relationship with Russia.

"With this agreement, the United States and Russia – the two largest nuclear powers in the world – also send a clear signal that we intend to lead," the president said. "By upholding our own commitments under the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty, we strengthen our global efforts to stop the spread of these weapons, and to ensure that other nations meet their own responsibilities."

Negotiators have been working since April 2009 to wrap up the "follow-on" to the 1991 START agreement. Talks were difficult, with disagreements over verification, including onsite inspection of missiles that carry nuclear warheads.

Verification will be a top issue politically because the

U.S. Senate and the Russian parliament will each have to ratify any agreement.

Russian officials at one point objected to the Obama administration's plans to build a missile-defense system in Eastern Europe.

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The issue, according to arms control experts, was resolved by including nonbinding language in the START treaty's preamble stating that there is a relationship between offensive and defensive weapons; however, the treaty itself deals only with limits on offensive weapons systems.

This resolution could help placate U.S. critics who want no link in the treaty between offensive and defensive weapons, arguing that it might be used to try to limit a U.S. missile-defense plan.

The new treaty would be the first pact related to arms control since the end of the Cold War, experts have said, setting the stage for further arms reductions that will tackle thorny issues such as what to do with nondeployed warheads that are kept in storage, tactical nuclear weapons and further cuts in missiles and launch vehicles.

Exercise 8. Analyze the data of the chart and compare nuclear arsenals of both countries. Study the progress of the arms race. What were the basic reasons for it?

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Exercise 9. Analyse the headline of the article below. What do you think is the article about?

US and Russian leaders hail nuclear arms treaty

US President Barack Obama and his Russian counterpart, Dmitry Medvedev, have signed a landmark nuclear arms treaty in the Czech capital, Prague.

The treaty commits the former Cold War enemies to each reduce the number of deployed strategic warheads to 1,550 – 30% lower than the previous ceiling.

Mr Obama said it was an important milestone, but "just one step on a longer journey" of nuclear disarmament.

Mr Medvedev said the deal would create safer conditions throughout the world.

If ratified by lawmakers in both countries, the treaty will replace the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (Start) of 1991, which has expired.

Missile defence

The US and Russian leaders signed the New Start treaty at a ceremony attended by hundreds of officials in the lavishly decorated Spanish Hall of Prague Castle, the Czech president's residence.

Under the pact, each side is allowed a maximum of 1,550 warheads, about 30 % lower than the 2002 Moscow Treaty.

It also limits the number of deployed delivery vehicles – ballistic missiles and heavy bombers – to no more than 700. However, each bomber counts as one warhead irrespective of the fact that it might carry multiple bombs or missiles.

Speaking after the signing ceremony, President Obama said the treaty demonstrated that both countries had halted the deterioration of their relations, which had prevented agreement on mutually important issues in the past.

He said the talks – beginning this summer – would cover missile defence, threat assessments, and the completion of a joint assessment of emerging ballistic missiles.

For his part, President Medvedev said the negotiating process had not been simple, but the treaty represented a "win-win situation" that would enhance strategic stability and bilateral relations.

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But Mr Medvedev said disagreements remained between Moscow and Washington over US plans for a missile defence shield, which have been modified by Mr Obama.

It was Moscow's concerns over Washington's plans to base interceptor missiles in Poland and a radar station in the Czech Republic that helped delay the new treaty. President Obama shelved the idea in September, although new plans include ground-based interceptor missiles in Romania.

The White House has said it hopes and expects the US Senate to ratify the New Start treaty this year. Senate ratification requires 67 votes, which means it must include Republicans.

The Russian lower house of parliament must also approve the treaty, but as long as the Kremlin supports it, ratification there is expected to be a formality.

During private talks before the signing ceremony, Mr Obama and Mr Medvedev also discussed Iran's nuclear programme.

The US wants the UN Security Council to approve tougher sanctions against Tehran, over its refusal to halt uranium enrichment.

"Unfortunately Tehran is not reacting to an array of constructive compromise proposals. We cannot close our eyes to this," Mr Medvedev said afterwards.

Exercise 10. Give the Russian equivalents for the following word combinations.

counterpart, to reduce the number of deployed strategic warheads, to limit the number of deployed delivery vehicles, ballistic missiles, heavy bombers, to halt the deterioration of their relations, to prevent agreement on mutually important issues, the benefits of co-operation, to pursue discussions, a joint assessment of emerging ballistic missiles, to enhance strategic stability and bilateral relations, ground-based interceptor missiles, to approve tougher sanctions against, in compliance with their nuclear nonproliferation obligations.

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Exercise 11. Look at the data and study the chart.

Discuss the following questions in group.

1.What are the estimated figures?

2.What do you think of the efficiency and necessity of the new START?

3.Is START important for keeping the nuclear balance in the world?

4.What consequences could it have? Will it influence the situation in the world?

TREATY LIMITS

Warheads: 1,550 (74 % lower than the 1991 Start Treaty and 30 % lower than the figure of 2,200 that each side was meant to reach by 2012 under the 2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (Sort)).

Launchers: 700 deployed intercontinental and subma- rine-launched ballistic missiles, and deployed heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments.

New limit on delivery systems less than half current ceiling of 1,600.

US AND RUSSIA NUCLEAR WEAPONS

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Exercise 12. Translate the following noun phrases and make up sentences with them.

five-yearly review conference, a nuclear-weapons free world, test ban treaty, disarmament obligations, the key passage, the 2000 NPT review conference statement, longrange nuclear missile force nuclear weapons technology.

Exercise 13. Debate the following questions.

1.Is a nuclear-weapons free world possible? Why? Why

not?

2.Are not the nuclear states supposed to be disarming under the NPT?

3 What exactly does the NPT say?

4.Is the NPT legally binding?

5.What weapons have the nuclear states given up?

6.Do the nuclear-weapon states have any intention of giving up nuclear weapons?

7.Are nuclear-weapon states building new nuclear weapons and delivery systems?

8.Are double standards operating against some countries?

Exercise 14. Read the article and check whether you were right in your suggestions.

In 2010, the next five-yearly review conference of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty will be held. President Obama has spoken of his hopes for a nu- clear-weapons free world.

On 24 September 2009, the UN Security Concil, adopted a resolution (1887) calling for the creation of "conditions for a world without nuclear weapons... "

Is a nuclear-weapons free world possible?

It is possible but unlikely for the foreseeable future. Even President Obama said that he did not expect to see it in his lifetime and also said that as long as such weapons existed, the US would keep its own nuclear arsenal.