4. Types of meaning. Different approaches.

Lexical meaning. The definition of lexical meaning has been attempted more than once in accordance with the main principles of different linguistic schools. The disciples of F. de Saussure consider meaning to be the relation between the object or notion named, and the name itself. Descriptive linguistics of L. Bloomfield defines the meaning as the situation in which the word is uttered. In our country definitions given by many authors, however different in detail, agree in one basic principle: lexical meaning is the realization of the notion by means of a definite language system.

Lexical meaning is not homogeneous. It includes denotative component and connotative component.

The denotative component is the one which makes communication possible. One of the functions of the word is to denote, that is to serve as linguistic expression for a notion (concept) or as a name for an existing object. This component is obligatory; it expresses the conceptual content of a word.

The denotative meaning may be of two types:

· Significative, evoking a general idea (A good laugh is sunshine in the house)

· Demonstrative, identifying (Some large blue china jars and parrot-tulips were ranged on the mantel shelf)

Another component of a lexical meaning is the connotative, which is optional and gives some additional information about the word. Connotative meaning expresses emotional content of the word, its capacity to evoke or directly express emotion.

Notorious (denotative component – widely known, connotative component – for criminal acts or bad traits of character (negative, evaluative connotation).

Celebrated (denotative component is the same – widely known, connotative component – for special achievement in science, art, etc (positive, evaluative connotation).

A meaning can have two or more connotative components. There are the following types of connotations:

1) the connotation of degree or intensity. To like – to love – to adore

2) the connotation of duration. To stare – to glance

3) emotive connotation. Lonely – alone

4) the evaluative connotation. Celebrated – notorious

5) the causative connotation. To shiver – to shudder

6) the connotation of manner. To stroll – to stride – to pace

7) the connotation of attendant circumstances. To peep – to peer

8) the connotation of attendant features. Pretty – handsome - beautiful

9) stylistic connotation. Girl -girlie – lass – lassie – bird – birdie

Grammatical meaning

Another type of meaning is grammatical. It is the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of words (mood, number, case, etc)

E.g.: dogs, cats, men (the lexical meaning is different here)

In the following examples the lexical meaning is identical but grammatical is different: boy-boys, boy’s, boys’.

The lexical meaning is strongly dependent upon the grammatical meaning, upon the part of speech to which the word belongs. Every word may be used in a limited set of syntactical functions, and with a definite valency. It has a definite set of grammatical meanings, and a definite set of forms.

Lexico-grammatical meaning

The lexico-grammatical meaning is regarded as the feature according to which definite words are grouped together. Every lexico-grammatical group of words or class is characterized by its own lexico-grammatical forming, the common dominator of all the meanings of the words which belong to this group. The lexico-grammatical meaning of each lexico-grammatical group is approximated in the lexical meaning of generic terms, i.e. words that are called semantically wide. These are words expressing notions in which abstraction and generalization are so great that they can substitute any word of their class.

The word «state» denotes the class of all states. Generic terms are not specific and are applicable to a great number of individual members of big classes. For example, such words as thing, job, affair, business, object and others render the notion of thingness common to all nouns. The word matter is a generic term for material nouns, person – for personal nouns.

The cultural component of meaning

Semantics of the language is determined by the cultural environment of the community speaking this or that language. The culture was discussed as far back as in the 17th century, but it was only in the 70s of the 20th century that the linguists exhibited their interests to this problem and investigated the language phenomena in the extra-linguistic context.

E.g.: Grey is a symbol of nobility, the white color is the color of joy and cleanliness for the Russians, but in the east it’s the color of mourning. (India)

According to G. Leech there are seven types of meaning.

1. Conceptual meaning or sense – logical, cognitive, or denotative content.

2. Connotative meaning – what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.

3. Stylistic meaning – what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.

4. Affective meaning – what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.

5. Reflecting meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.

6. Collocative meaning – what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.

7. Thematic meaning – what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

The fundamental approach to the study and description of lexical meaning was elaborated by V.V. Vinogradov. He analyzed the overall meaning of a word in terms of nominative, nominative-derivative, colligationally and collocationally conditioned and phraseologically bound meanings.

The nominative meaning denotes the objects of extralinguistic reality in direct and straightforward way, reflecting their actual relations. Thus, for example: to carry whose nominative meaning is “to support the weight of and move from place to place” normally combines with nouns like a box, a chair, a heavy stone, a baby, etc. The nominative meaning is the basic of all the other meanings of the word. It is said to be “free”. The word may have several “free” meanings but they all depend on the nominative one: that is why they are called “nominative-derivative”, for example: sweet in the nominative-derivative meaning of “pleasant, attractive” goes with face, voice, singer, little boy, temper, etc.

Side by side with the “free” meanings of the word there are linguistically conditioned (or “bound”) meanings which can be of two kinds: colligationally conditioned and collocationally conditioned.

The former can be illustrated by the uses of the verb to keep. When used with nouns like hens, bees, pigs, etc. the verb means “own or manage especially for profit”. The verb to keep has altogether different meaning, namely “continue doing something” when it is used with a gerund, for example: Keep smiling!

The colligationally conditioned meaning is determined by the morphosyntactic combinability of the word, while the collocationally conditioned meaning depends on its lexical-phraseological ties, e.g. the verb to love in the expression I’d love to meet them.