10. Types of narrators. Point of view.

Narrators of stories can take on 3 points of view: 1^st person(I/We-the narrator is one of the characters and tells the story in his or her own words;uses the words I,me,we,us;the reader only knows what the narrator knows and observes);2^nd person(You);3^rd person(He/she;they/them-the narrator is not one of the characters(an outside observer)and uses the words he,she,it,they,them). A story’s point of view is the position from which a narrative is told. The person whose point of view is used to relate the story is regarded as the narrator.3 types of 3^rd person point of view:limited - focuses on the feelings and thoughts of one character;omniscient – has an “all-knowing” narrator who can describe the thoughts and feelings of all characters.Can be intrusive or unintrusive(impersonal,pbjective),a limited point of view;objective/dramatic – when the narrator does not reveal the feelings and thoughts of any character,he only records what is seen and heard.Multiple narrator-it is used in stories where it is important to get different characters’ views on a single matter. A condensed report of past events/someone’s speech is a short summery of what has happened which author often uses in fiction.Reflection by the author or by a character can aquire different combinations of presentation, such as commentary, digression, inner monologue.Inner represented speech expresses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written lng by the character.That is why it abounds exclamatory words and phrases,elliptical constructions,breaks and other means. Stream of consciousness writing in which character’s perceptions,thoughts,and memories are presented in an apparently random form. Deductive reasoning applying a generalization to specific circumstances in order to reach a conclusion.

11.Tonal system. Means of creating mood and atmosphere. Irony results from the reader’s sense of some discrepancy: verbal I a figure of speech in which the literal mng of a word of a statement is the opposite of the intended mng; I of situation arises from the contrast btw how a set of circumstances looks on the surface and what it actually is reality.It’s a literary technique based on the discrepancy btw what is intebded when one acts and what the result is. Dramatic I is as literary technique in which the reader understands the actual mng of what is happening but the character does not. The tone expresses not only the relationship btw the narrator and the subject matter,but also the relationship btw the narrator and the reader. The official T is set by words and idioms that have an official ring(“verbant” instead of “important”/”permit me to inform you” instead of “let me tell you”) or by carefully organized syntax and carefully expressed ideas admitting no deviations from the standard.The familiar T is established by spoken lng,the conversation style in particular(colloquial words and idioms).Tone, attitude and atmosphere are important elements of any literary work,which affect the reader’s emotional response. The analysis of tone,attitude and atmpsphere is a more towards the underlying thoughts and ideas contained in the work,it can be seen as a link btw the surface content and all that lies beneath. Atmosphere:the overall feeling of a work, which is related to tone and mood. In literature, we'll see the author "paint" the scene with words that describe the "feel" of a place. He'll say how things look, smell and sound. He'll appeal to all the reader's senses, or as many as he can, and he does this to draw a person into the story and make it more "real" for the reader(A large, decaying Gothic castle in the midst of a rain and lightening storm has a foreboding atmosphere. A small cafe will smell like it).

12.The theme and message.Implications.The theme is the central topic, subject, or concept the author is trying to point out. The most important idea. The message is what the author wanted to say, his thesis or lesson with moral mng. It is generally expressed through a complete evaluation of the signifying complexity of the rethoric, figures of speech, images,symbols, allusions, connotations, suggestions, and implications. Implication is the suggestion that is not expressed directly but understood. Means of conveying I: parallelism, contrast, recurrence of events or situations,artistic details,symbols,arrangement of plot structure,etc.

13.Genre system. Subgenres. Genre is a French word mng “type”,”sort”. It designates the literary form or type into which works are classified according to what they have in common,either in formal structure or in their treatment of subject matter or both. Classification of literary work: epic(the story is centered on heroic characters, culturally or nationally significant,and the action takes place on a grand scale):1.epitath-a folk song telling a story or legend in simple lng,often with a refrain;2.Burlesque-a humorous imitation of a serious work or literature;3.Eclogue-a short pastoral poem in the form of a dialogue;4.Limerique-a humorous or nonsense written in 5 lines with the rhyme aabb. lyric(expresses personal and emotional feelings); drama(a work of literature that is meant to be performed.The term is used interchangeably with play.A play is a story meant to be performed in a theatre before the audience,usually written in dialogue form and divided into acts):1.Comedy-lighthearted,characterized by humor and happy enfings(subgenres-black comedy(presenting stupid characters in a fantastic or nightmarish word),comedy of ideas(tends to debate ideas and theories in a witty and humorous fashion),comedy of character(laugh at human drowbacks and follies),comedy of situation9relies on ridiculous or mistaken situations,coincidents and cases of mistaken identity));2.Tragedy-a serious play that ends unhappily for the protagonist;3.Fane-a high-energy comedy that plays on confusion and deceptions btw characters and features a convoluted and fast-placed plot;4.Problem play-confronts a contemporary social problem with the intent of changing public opinion on the matter. Fiction(writing that is a product of the imagination): 1.Historical Fiction: based on or around a person or event from history.2. Science Fiction: dealing with aliens, the future, or advanced technology.3. Fantasy: containing monsters, magic, or other supernatural elements. Realistic Fiction: a story that could have happened, but didn’t. Nonfiction(writing that is true or factual):1. Informational Writing: writing that provides information on a topic.2. Persuasive Writing: writing that attempts to influence the reader.3. Autobiography: the story of one’s life told by oneself. 4.Biography: the story of someone’s life told by someone else. Drama(writing that appears as a play or script):1. Comedy.2. Tragedy. Poetry. Folklore(stories that were handed down through the oral tradition):1.Fable-short prose or verse narrative that illustrates a moral that is stated explicity at the end.The characters are often animals eith human traits.2.Fairy Tales-a story about mysterious adventures involving magical beings,usually depicting a difficult tial or rescue.3.Tall Tale- stories usually set in the American frontier where the main character has exaggerated strengths, skills, or size. The tone of the author is humorous. Novel-fictional prose narrative of significant length:1.Adventure N-a novel where exciting events are more important than character development.2.Social Didactic N-a literary work intended to instruct or educate.3.Family N.4.Epistolary N-letters exchanged by characters in the story5.N of manners-focuses on social customs of a certain class or people,usually relies much on irony in the description.5.Allegory-a narrative in which literal mng corresponds clearly and directly to secondary symbolic or metaphorical mng.6.Apologue-a moral fable,usually featuring personified animals or inmate objects which act like people to allow the author to comment on the human condition.Highlights the irrationality of mankind.7.Parable-a short narrative that illustrates a moral by means of allegory.8.Autobiographical N-a novel based on the author’s life experience.

14.Elements of Poetry.Poetryis a lng in which every component-word & word order,sound & pause,image & echo is significant,because every element points towards or stands for futher relationships among & beyond themselves.Poetry is lng that always means more.Elements of poetry: diction(an art of selecting words.On this 1^st level,poetry is an art of word choice.The words of the Eng lng may be devided into 2 parts:common w(standard vocabulary:neutral,common standard-literary voc,common standard-colloquial voc) & special w(special literary bookish voc,special or non-standard colloquial voc) );rhythm(regularity of stressed & unstressed syllables became the main feature of classical poetic form since Chauser.The lines of the verse are divided into equal units called metrical feet(consist of 2/3 syll,only 1 of which is stressed): trochee(2 syyl,the 1^st stressed and the 2^nd unstressed);iamb(2 syyl,the 1^st unstressed and the 2^nd stressed);dactyl(3 syll,the 1^st accented & 2^nd & the 3^rd unaccented);amphibrach(3 syll,the 2st unaccented & the 2^nd accented & 3^rd unaccented); anapest(3 syyl,where the accent falls on the last of the 3 syll));rhyme;(repetition of the end syll sounds in successive words,either as full rhymes(eye-sky) or part rhymes(river-ever) in which the end consonants match but no the vowels, masculine rhyme-the stress falls on the last syll in a line,a feminine rhyme-the stress falls on the last but one syll);stanza(a unit within a larger poem. A stanza consists of a grouping of lines, set off by a space, that usually has a set pattern of meter and rhyme).

15.Intertextuality.Allusions. Intertextuality is the interdependence of literary textes in the sense of establishing connections btw a given work of fiction(poetry or drama) and thr literary texts that have gone before it(preceeding,or precedent texts)-by Julia Kristeva. A literary text is not an isolated phenomenon but is made up of a mosaic of quotation,and that any text is the “absorption and transformation of anoher”. No text is original and unique in itself but is full of references to and quotations from other texts.Intertextuality is the process bt which a given text relies on or refers to another one(Lord of the Flies=the Coral island;Wide Sargasso=Jane Eyre).Relations btw textes are various.Types of I:allusion-is a brief reference to a person(famous historical or literary figure),event,place,or to a work of art.They are frequent in titles.Adaptation is the re-casting of a work from one medium into another(recasting of novels into filmd).Plagiarism is wrongful appropriation and publication as one’s own,that is pirating,of other people’s works.Parody is the imitative use of the words, style,attitude,tone and ideas of an author in such a way as to make them ridiculous. Pastiche is a text that uses another text’s style and features,or a work assembled out of pieces taken from other works.This is sometimes done in a humorous way but nevertheless remains respectful.Quotation is drawing on precedent texts as a source of mng to be used at face value.This occurs whenever one text takes statements from another source as authoritative and then repeats that inf fro the purposes of the new text.May be direct(is usually identifies by quotation marks) and indirect(specifies a source and then attempts to reproduce the mng of the original but in words that reflect the author’s understanding).Revriting.Absorption.

Types of allusions: Biblical, Contemporary(These are often lost when the current context is no longer in the public eye), Cultural(reference a cultural tradition or custom), Historical, Literary, Medical(references medical cases or terms. For example, someone says, “you’re using your right brain because you’re so creative”), Mythological, Political.An allusion is a literary device that stimulates ideas, associations, and extra information in the reader's mind with only a word or two. Allusion means 'reference'. It relies on the reader being able to understand the allusion and being familiar with all of the meaning hidden behind the words.

16.Interpretation of a literary work as an artistic whole. Interpretation includes a number of different things readers do. Most commonly, people think that to interpet is to decode meanings hidden in the writing by the author. The question asked is, "What did the author really mean?" This question shows a simplistic understanding of what imaginative writing is and how literature works. Other areas of this map iscuss the writin When someone writes something, he or she does so in a context. This context includes the writer's feelings, beliefs, past experiences, goals, needs, and physical environmental process and how it leads to discovery. The meaning which the text has for the reader emerges from the interaction of the reader's world with the world of the text. The meaning does not reside in the text or in the author's intentions. The meaning happens as the text is read and reflected upon. Intrepretation, then, is something a reader does in response to a text.

17.Principles and methods of literary criticism. When one regards the question of literary criticism,one confronts the problem of interrelation btw literary theory and critical practice.It’s a sense-making activitywhich is inevitable part of all reading.Critical approaches for reading:1.formalist a-emphasizes how the elements within a work achieve their effects;2.biographical/3.psycological a – lead outward from the work to consider the author’s life and other works.4.historical/5.socialogical perspectives- connect the work to historic,social and economic forces;6.mythological readings – represent the broadest approach,because they discuss the cultural and universal responces readers have to a work. Any given approach rises its own types of ? and issues. Biographical criticism-understanding the author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.Biographical critic always base interrelation on what is in the text itself,biographical info should amplify the mng of the text.Investigates the social,cultural and intellectual contect that produce it-a context that include artist’s biography.Helps us to understand the work by recreating exact mng and impact it has on its original audience.Examines literature in the cultural,economic and political context in which it is written or received.Psycological criticism-predominately drown from Freudian psychoanalytical interpretations on which fulfillment,sexuality,the unconscious.unalizes the speaker’s unconscious desires and wishes.Examines symbols in literature,belief that literature truthfully reflects life.Psychological criticism-investigates the creative proses of the art and literature effects on the reader.Psychological study of the author.Analisis of fictional characters which tries to bring modern insights about human behavior into study of how fictional people act.Mythological criticism- looks for the recurrent universal patterns underlying most literary works.Explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the individual imagination uses symbols and situations-consciously or not-in ways that transcend its own time and resemble the mythology of other cultures.

18.19^th century criticism. The British Romantic movement of the early nineteenth century introduced new aesthetic ideas to literary study, including the idea that the object of literature need not always be beautiful, noble, or perfect, but that literature itself could elevate a common subject to the level of the sublime.When one regards the question of literary criticism,one confronts the problem of interrelation btw literary theory and critical practice.It’s a sense-making activitywhich is inevitable part of all reading.Critical approaches for reading:1.formalist a-emphasizes how the elements within a work achieve their effects;2.biographical/3.psycological a – lead outward from the work to consider the author’s life and other works.4.historical/5.socialogical perspectives- connect the work to historic,social and economic forces;6.mythological readings – represent the broadest approach,because they discuss the cultural and universal responces readers have to a work. Any given approach rises its own types of ? and issues. Biographical criticism-understanding the author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.Biographical critic always base interrelation on what is in the text itself,biographical info should amplify the mng of the text.Investigates the social,cultural and intellectual contect that produce it-a context that include artist’s biography.Helps us to understand the work by recreating exact mng and impact it has on its original audience.Examines literature in the cultural,economic and political context in which it is written or received.Psycological criticism-predominately drown from Freudian psychoanalytical interpretations on which fulfillment,sexuality,the unconscious.unalizes the speaker’s unconscious desires and wishes.Examines symbols in literature,belief that literature truthfully reflects life.Psychological criticism-investigates the creative proses of the art and literature effects on the reader.Psychological study of the author.Analisis of fictional characters which tries to bring modern insights about human behavior into study of how fictional people act.Mythological criticism- looks for the recurrent universal patterns underlying most literary works.Explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the individual imagination uses symbols and situations-consciously or not-in ways that transcend its own time and resemble the mythology of other cultures.

19.Main tenets of biographical criticism. Biographical criticism is the idea that knowing an author's experiences can help the reader to interpret and understand the author's text. Biographical critics believe it's essential to to be aware of the time period and events at the time of the writing, and this will help them understand the work. By understanding what time period that the author was raised in, the audience, who has to have a common knowledge about general time periods, can understand why the author, or character, in the books does things or says things a certain way. Having the knowledge of the author's background (personal background and background of the time period) can reveal to the audience why authors have certain tones in most or all of their works. Biographical Criticism Strategies: 1. Research the author's life.2. Use the biographical information to understand the inferential and evaluative levels of the work.3. Research the author's beliefs.

4. Relate those systems of belief to the work.

5. Explain how the connections reflect in the work's themes and topics.6. Explain what can be determined about the author's statements within the text based on bio info.

understanding the author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.Biographical critic always base interrelation on what is in the text itself,biographical info should amplify the mng of the text.Investigates the social,cultural and intellectual contect that produce it-a context that include artist’s biography.Helps us to understand the work by recreating exact mng and impact it has on its original audience.Examines literature in the cultural,economic and political context in which it is written or received.

20.Historicist criticism- is a branch of literary criticism that investigates the origins of ancient text in order to understand "the world behind the text". a branch of history which looked at literature for evidence about the economic and political events going on at the time at which the works were produced, and that also looked at historical events to explain the content of literary works. This way of reading literature flourished in Anglo-American universities in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century. In addition to pursuing a work's connection to the well-known events of its era, like wars, plagues, revolutions, etc., the historical critics did much to produce more accurate pictures of the cultures which produced and consumed literature. Goals:1. to ascertain the text's primitive or original meaning in its original historical context and its literal sense.2. to establish a reconstruction of the historical situation of the author and recipients of the text. This may be accomplished by reconstructing the true nature of the events in which the text describes. An ancient text may also serve as a document, record or source for reconstructing the ancient past which may also serve as a chief interest to the historical critic. Historical-critical methods are the specific procedures used to examine the text’s historical origins, such as: the time, the place in which the text was written, its sources, the events, dates, persons, places, things, and customs that are mentioned or implied in the text.Characteristics:1. reality is uniform and universal;2. reality is accessible to human reason and investigation;3. all events historical and natural are interconnected and comparable to analogy;4. humanity’s contemporary experience of reality can provide objective criteria to what could or could not have happened in past events. Historical criticism comprises several disciplines which include: Source criticism(the search for the original sources which lie behind a given biblical text), Form criticism(breaks the Bible down into sections (pericopes, stories) which are analyzed and categorized by genres (prose or verse, letters, laws, court archives, war hymns, poems of lament), Redaction criticism(studies "the collection, arrangement, editing and modification of sources", and is frequently used to reconstruct the community and purposes of the author/s of the text), Radical criticism(tried to avoid any trace of dogma or theological bias when reconstructing a past reality. This has led to the branch of Radical Criticism, pursued by historical critics most skeptic of ecclesial tradition,has projected the concept that Jesus never existed,nor his apostles. Radical critics have also attempted to show that none of the Pauline epistles are authentic; that Paul is nothing more than a controverted authorial token)