- •1.1. Definition
- •1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
- •1.3. Classes of nouns
- •1.3.1. Proper vs common nouns
- •1.3.2. Concrete vs abstract nouns
- •1.3.3. Countable vs uncountable nouns
- •1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
- •1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
- •1.3.6. Gender
- •1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns
- •1.4. The category of Number
- •1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation
- •1.4.2. The non-productive ways of the number formation
- •1.5. The category of Case
- •1.5.1. Common Case: the syntactic functions of nouns
- •1.5.2. Possessive case
- •1. Write down the plurals of the following nouns and check their pronunciation in a dictionary where necessary:
- •2. Define the morphological structure of the italicized nouns in the texts given below:
- •3. Make up unstable compounds out of the following word-combinations:
- •4. Use the possessive case of the noun instead of the following word-combinations:
- •5. Analyse the italicized nouns in terms of classes and categories in the following extracts:
- •6. Translate the following sentences into English:
- •2.1. Definition
- •2.2. Functions of article
- •2.3. Article and pronoun
- •2.4. Indefinite article: usage
- •2.4.1. Indefinite article before common concrete nouns
- •2.5. Definite article: usage
- •2.5.7. Definite article before common nouns
- •2.5.2. Definite article before proper nouns
- •2.5.3. Definite article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.6. Zero article: usage
- •2.6.1. Zero article before common nouns
- •2.6.2. Zero article before proper nouns
- •2.6.3. Zero article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.7. Article determination of certain noun groups
- •1. Comment on the use of the italicized articles and nouns they determine in the extracts below:
- •2. Compare and explain the use of the italicized articles and nouns they specify in the following groups of sentences:
- •3. Insert proper articles where necessary into the texts below:
- •4. Translate the following texts into English using proper articles:
- •3.1. Definition
- •3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
- •3.3. Classes of adjectives
- •3.3.1. Qualitative adjectives: the category of comparison
- •Inner — — innermost
- •3.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives
- •2. Give the opposites of the following adjectives by using the correct negative prefix:
- •3. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
- •4. Define the class of the italicized adjectives and their syntactic function in the text given below:
- •5. Insert little or a little and define which part speech they belong to:
- •10. Complete the following with far/farther/farthest, further/furthest:
- •11. Put the words in brackets into the comparative forms:
- •4.1. Definition
- •4.2. Classes of pronouns
- •4.4. Possessive pronouns
- •4.5. Reflexive pronouns
- •4.6. Reciprocal pronouns
- •4.7. Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.8. Interrogative pronouns
- •4.9. Connective pronouns
- •4.9.1. Relative pronouns
- •4.9.2. Conjunctive pronouns
- •4.10. Indefinite pronouns
- •4.11. Defining pronouns
- •4.12. Negative pronouns
- •2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:
- •3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:
- •4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:
- •11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:
- •12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:
- •13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:
- •5.1. Definition
- •5.2. Classes of numerals
- •5.3. Morphological structure of numbers
- •5.4. Usage
- •5.4.1. Numerals proper
- •5.4.2. Noun-substitutes
- •5.4.3. Substantivized numerals
- •1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:
- •2. Translate into English using cardinals:
- •3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:
- •4. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •5. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •6. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:
- •8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:
- •6.1. Definition
- •6.2. Morphological structure of verbs
- •6.3. Finite vs non-finite forms
- •6.4. Syntagmatic functioning of verbs
- •6.5. Conjugation of verbs
- •6.6. Regular vs irregular verbs
- •6.7. Classes of verbs: functions
- •6.8. Be: functions
- •6.9. Have: functions
- •6.10. Do: functions
- •6.11. Shall: Junctions
- •6.12. Will: functions
- •6.13. Should: functions
- •6.14. Would: functions
- •6.15. Modals
- •6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
- •6.15.2. Modals expressing supposition
- •6.15.3, Modals expressing ability
- •6.75.4. Modals expressine permission.__requests,
- •6.15.5. Modals expressing willingness
- •6.15.6. Semi-defective verbs: need and dare
- •I 6.16. Meaningful verbs: grammatical categories
- •6.16.2. Category of Tense
- •6.16.3. Category of Taxis
- •6.16.4. Category of Aspect
- •6.16.5. Category of Voice
- •6.16.6. Category of Person
- •6.16.7. Category of Number
- •6.16.8. Category of Negation
- •6.16.9. Category of Interrogation
- •Is often a fine month, isn't it? — It isn't cold in October,
- •Is it? Leaves turn red and gold then, don't they? — The
- •I? You will be quick, won't you?
- •6.16.10. The Category of Expressivity
- •6.16.11. The category of Representation
- •6.17.1. Participle
- •6.17.2. Gerund
- •6.17.3. Infinitive
- •2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
- •3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
- •4. Comment upon the functions of be:
- •5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:
- •6. Comment upon the functions of do in the following extracts:
- •7. Define the meaning of the italicized modals in the extracts below:
- •8. Translate into English using modals of obligation:
- •9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:
- •10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:
- •11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:
- •12. Comment upon the forms of the participle and its syntactic functions:
- •13. Comment upon the forms of the gerund and its syntactic functions:
- •14. Comment upon the forms of the infinitive and its syntactic functions:
- •75. Define the grammatical status and the syntactic function of the italicised -ing forms in the following extracts:
- •16. State the grammatical status of verbals and their syntactic function in the following extracts:
- •17. Translate into English using the Complex Subject:
- •18. Translate into English using the Complex Object:
- •7.1. Definition
- •7.2. Morphological structure of adverbs
- •7.5.7. Adverbs denoting the quality of an action
- •7.5.2. Adverbs denoting circumstances
- •7.6. Syntactic functions of adverbs
- •1. Comment on the morphological status, lexical class and syntactic function of the italicized adverbs in the sentences below:
- •2. Choose the right word and define the part of speech it belongs to:
- •3. State whether the italicized words in the sentences below are adverbs or prepositions:
- •4. State whether the italicized forms below are prepositional or phrasal verbs:
3.1. Definition
The adjective is a part of speech which denotes the property of substance. This is the nominative class of words though functionally limited as compared with nouns. This means that adjectives are not supposed to name objects: they can only describe them in terms of the material they are made of, their colour, size, quality, etc: red, white, big, high, long, good, kind, happy. Therefore they find themselves semantically and syntactically bound with nouns or pronouns: We bought white paint. We painted the door white. She is a happy woman. She is happy. He made her happy.
The exceptions are substantivized adjectives, i.e. those that in the course of time have been converted to nouns and therefore have acquired the ability to name substances or objects: The bride was dressed in white. You mix blue and yellow to make green.
The substantivation of adjectives may be either complete or incomplete. In the case of complete substantivation, words like a native, a relative, a conservative, an alternative, a cooperative, a derivative, a savage, a stupid, a criminal, a black, a white, a liberal, a radical, a general, a corporal, a Russian, an American, a Greek, a Hungarian, a weekly, a monthly and so on share all the nounal grammatical characteristics: number, case, the ability to be used with the definite and indefinite articles: a native,
two natives, the native's hut; an American, two Americans, the American's accent.
The incomplete substantivation presupposes only some of nounal grammatical characteristics. For example, some of substantivized adjectives have only the plural form: valuables, eatables, ancients, sweets.
Most of substantivized adjectives of the kind are similar to collective nouns since they denote a whole class. They are used with the definite article: the rich, the poor, the unemployed, the black, the white, the deaf and dumb, the English, the French, the Chinese. In a sentence they are normally associated with a plural verb: The rich get richer and the poor get poorer.
The substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions are used with the definite article but are associated with the singular verb: the good, the evil, the beautiful, the future, the present, the past: The evil that men do lives after them/The good is oft interred with their bones. (W. Shakespeare)
3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
As well as nouns adjectives are structurally classified into simple, derivative and compound.
Simple adjectives have no affixes and thus cannot be further segmented: red, white, big, kind.
Derivative adjectives derive from either nouns, verbs or even adjectives themselves by means of suffixes and prefixes: beautiful < beauty, friendless < friend, illogical < logic, unreliable < rely, independent < depend, repentant < repent, reddish < red, greyish < grey, childish < child.
The productive adjective-forming suffixes arc:
-able/-ible: usable, readable, intelligible, responsible;
-ful: colourful, useful, deceitful;
-less: colourless, useless;
-like: businesslike, childlike.
The less productive suffixes are:
-ish after the nounal root-stem: British, Turkish. Spanish; selfish, foolish, childish;
-ish after the adjectival root-stem: greyish, yellowish, youngish, tall ish:
-ish after the numeral root-stem: eightish, fortyish;
-ant/-ent: confidant, expectant; consequent, current;
-ous: curious, obvious, industrious, infectious;
-some: troublesome, quarrelsome;
-en: woolen, wooden, silken;
-an: American, Italian, Austrian;
-y: watery_, snowy, rainy, easy;
-al: principal, accidental, parental;
-ic/-ical: photographic; grammatical, hysterical, musical; historic — historical, economic — economical:
-ive/-ative: active, explosive; communicative, derivative;
-ate/-ite: delicate,, animate, accurate; definite, composite;
-or/ory/ary: inferior, superior; compulsory, consolatory, preparatory; customary, stationary, sanitary:
-ing: surprising, perplexing:
-ed: barbed, beaded;
-ly: friendly, womanly, monthly.
Note that -ed, -ing and -ly can be regarded as adjectival suffixes only with some reservation for adjectives like surprising, perplexing and barbed, beaded
are in fact adjectivized present and past participles correspondingly while the -ly suffix is more typical of adverbs. (See 7.2.)
The adjective-forming prefixes are:
pre-: prearranged, prewar;
pro-: pro-American;
un-: unusual, unpredictable, unhappy;
in-: insensitive, inanimate;
im-: impossible, immoral;
il-: illiterate, illogical;
dis-: dishonest, disinterested; \
a-: aloof, agog, ajar, ablaze, aglow, afire.
Note that words with the a- prefix are traditionally discussed within the class of adjectives though actually their morphological status is rather ambiguous: they are in between adjectives and adverbs.
Compound adjectives are made up of two or more stems. Here are the main types of compound adjectives:
a) noun-stem + adjective-stem: point-blank, raven-haired,
b) adjective-stem + noun-stem: small-scale, smalltime, blue-collar,
c) adjective-stem + adjective-stem: deaf-mute, good-looking, small-minded.