James clerk maxwell

l. James Clerk Maxwell, the great physicist and mathematician, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on November 13, 1831.

2. After school he entered the University of that city. Then he attended the University of Cambridge and graduated from it in 1854. When at the University Maxwell took great interest in mathematics and optics.

3. For two years after the University he lectured, made experiments in optics at Trinity College and studied much himself.

4. In 1871 Maxwell became professor of natural philosophy and in 1860 professor of physics and astronomy at King's College, London. In London he lived for 5years. Here he saw Faraday for the first time.

5. In 1871 Maxwell became professor of experimental physics at Cambridge. At that time students could not even have such subjects as electricity or magnetism as there was no laboratory for the study of there subjects. Maxwell organised such a laboratory which made Cambridge world-known.

6. This was a very fruitful period of Maxwell's life. He studied the problems of electromagnetism, molecular physics, optics, mechanics and other.

7. Maxwell wrote his first scientific work when he was fifteen. Since that time he wrote a great number of works which were the results of his experiments and calculations.

8. His most outstanding investigations, however, are in the field of the kinetic theory of gases and electricity. Maxwell is the founder of the electromagnetic field (side by side with Faraday) and the electromagnetic theory of light. In 1873 he published his famous work on electricity and magnetism. During these years he also wrote his classification "Matter and Motion", a small book on a great subject, and many articles on various subjects ("Atoms", "Attraction" "faraday" and others).

9. Maxwell's works on the kinetic theory of gases, the theory of heat, dynamics and the mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism are monuments to his great genius.

Notes:

1. for the first time - впервые, в первый раз

2. world-known - всемирно известный

3. side by side with - наряду с

I. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. When and where was J.C.Maxwell born?

2. Where did he study?

3. What did he do after graduating from the University?

4. What was a very fruitful period of Maxwell's life?

5. What are his most important works?

II. Определите, правильны или неправильны следующие выражения

1. After school Maxwell entered the University of Cambridge.

2. He became professor of natural philosophy at Trinity College.

3. Maxwell organised a laboratory for the study of electricity and magnetism.

4. His most famous work was published in the early 1870s.

III. Задайте вопросы к имеющимся ответам

1. He studied the problems of electromagnetism, molecular phisics and others.

2. Maxwell wrote his first work when he was fifteen.

3. Maxwell is the founder of the electromagnetic theory of light.

4. During these years he wrote many articles on various subjects.

IV. Закончите предложения:

1. He attended the University of Cambridge and graduated from it...

2. When at the University Maxwell took great...."

3. He wrote a great number of works which were the results... .

V. Докажите, что 1871 был очень плодотворным периодом для Максвелла.

HENRY CAVENDISH AND HIS DISCOVERY

Henry Cavendish was born in 1731 and died in 1810. He was an English nobleman who did scientific experiments as a hobby. In 1781 he made the important discovery that water is not an element but a compound of the gases we now call hydrogen and oxygen. He described his experiments to the Royal Society in 1785.

His method was new. He showed that if electric sparks are passed through a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen the two gases combine explosively and form water. This was a dangerous experiment. Cavendish did his experiment safely; he wisely used a strong brass container for the gases. He also passed electric sparks through air and found that gases which readily dissolve in water form acids. We explain this reaction today as follows: oxygen and, nitrogen combine and oxides of nitrogen.

Cavendish also noticed that air contained a small proportion of a gas which did not combine with any other gas even if we pass electric sparks through it for a long time. Now we think that this gas was probably argon, one of the inert gases. It was rediscovered many years later.

Notes:

1) if electric sparks are passed - если пропускать электрические искры (разряды)

2) explosively - со взрывом

I. Определите часть речи следующих слов и переведите их на русский язык.

Science, scientific, scientist; England, English, Englishman; cover, discover, rediscover, discovery, discoverer; important, importance;

Element, elementary; react, reaction, reactor, reactivity; electric, electrical, electricity; mix, mixture; danger, dangerous; fame, famous; contain, container; man, nobleman (noble-благородный), gentleman, workman.

II. Найдите русские эквиваленты следующим словам:

experiment, element, gas, hydrogen, oxygen, method, container, hobby, reaction, proportion, argon, inert.

III. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Chemistry is my hobby.

2. Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.

3. Tell about your future profession, please.

4. Pass me the salt, please.

5. He passed by without saying a word.

6. At the evening technical school students combine work and study.

7. Solve this problem, please.

8. Dissolve some salt in water.

IV. Просмотрите текст, ответьте на вопросы:

1) What was Henry Cavendish?

2) When and where did Cavendish live?

3) What did Cavendish discover?

4) Is water an element?

5) How did Cavendish prove that water is a compound?

FATHER OF OUR COUNTRY

"George Washington (1732-1799) won a lasting place in American History as the "Father of our country". For nearly twenty years he guided his country much as a father cares for a growing child."

In three important ways, Washington helped shape the beginning of United States. First, he commanded the Continental Army that won American independence from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War. Second, Washington served as president of the convention that wrote the United States Constitution. Third, he was elected the first President of the United States.

The people of his day loved Washington. His army officers would have made him king if he had let them. From the Revolutionary War on, his birthday was celebrated each year throughout the Country.

Washington lived an exciting life in exciting times. As a boy, he explored the wilderness. When he grew older, he helped the British fight the French and Indians. Many times he was nearly killed. As a general he suffered hardships with his troops in the cold winters. He lost many battles, but led the American Army to final victory. After he became President, he successfully solved many problems in turning the plans of the Constitution into a working government.

Washington went to school only until he was about 14 or 15. But he learned to make the most of all his abilities and opportunities. Washington's remarkable patience and his understanding of others helped him win people to his side in times ox hardship and discouragement.

Washington; s appearance caused admiration and respect. He was tall, strong, and broad-shouldered. As he grew older cares lined his face and gave him a somewhat stern appearance. He had a large and straight rather than a prominent nose; blue-grey penetrating eyes; dark brown hair which he wore in a queue. His movements and gestures were graceful, his walk majestic. Washington set his own strict rules of conduct, but he also enjoyed having a good time. He laughed at jokes, though he seldom told any.

Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every consideration was maturely weighed; refraining when he saw a doubt, but, when once decided, going through with his purpose whatever obstacles opposed. "He was indeed, in every sense of the words, a wise, a good and a great man" wrote Thomas Jefferson.

Washington belonged to an old colonial family that believed in hard work, in public service and in worshipping God. George Washington was born in Westmoreland county, Va., on a farm, later known as Wake, field, on February 22. 1732. His first American ancestor came to Virginia from England in 1657. Farming, land buying, trading, milling, and the iron industry were means by which the family rose in the world.

George's father, Augustine, had four children by his first wife and six by his second wife, Mary Ball, George's mother.

Of George's early life little is known. His formal education was slight: no more than 7 or 8 years of school. Men, plantation life and the haunts of river, field, and forest were his principle teachers.

Augustine died when George was 11, leaving several farms. Ferry farm went to George when he reached 21. His favourite subject was arithmetic. He studied enough history and geography to know something of the outside world. But he never learned as much about literature, foreign languages and history as did Thomas Jefferson or James Medison.

At the age of 14 he began work as a surveyor, making many trips into the wilderness areas of Virginia and Pennsylvania. His first military experience came in the French and Indian War (1754-63), when he was sent on two missions deep into the Ohio county. The War estranged Washington from the British. Thereafter, he never expressed a feeling of affection for them.

Washington retired to Mount Vernon which he inherited after his brother's death. In 1759 he married Martha Dandridge, a widow. Her first husband had left her a fortune of about 17.000 acres (6.880 hectares) of land, 150 slaves and $360.000. Washington became a loving stepfather to Martha's two children. He and Martha had no children of their own.

As a planter, Washington concentrated at first on tobacco raising. He sооn learned that it did not pay. He developed a fishery, increased his production of wheat, and operated a mill. He was a progressive farmer.

In 1760's the American colonists grew angrier and angrier at the taxes placed on them by Great Britain. In September 1771 the Continental Congress met, where Washington had his first chance to meet and talk with leaders of other colonies. The members were impressed with his judgement and military knowledge. He was sent to attend the Second Continental Congress (1775) where he was elected a commander in chief of the Continental Army. He proved himself a capable commander of the War of Independence.

In 1787 Washington was unanimously chosen president of the Continental Convention and later overwhelmingly elected first president of the republic (1789), followed by re-election (1792). In his two terms he established innumerable precedents and left a permanent stamp on the office of the presidency.

George Washington died after an illness of two days on Dec.14, 1799. He went for his daily horseback ride around Mount Vernon. The day was cold with snow turning into rain and sleet. Washington returned after five hours and sat down to dinner without changing his damp clothes. The next day he awoke with a sore throat. He went for a walk. In the afternoon he had difficulty speaking and was quite ill. The illness was "inflammatory quinsy". He was bled thrice. At 10 p.m. on December 14, Washington whispered: "I am going. Have me decently buried, and do not let my body be put in the vault in less than two days after I am dead." Then he died.

No other American has been honoured 'more than Washington. The nation's capital, Washington D.C., was named after him. There the giant Washington Monument stands. The state of Washington is the only state named after a President. Many cities, parks, streets, bridges, lakes, and schools bear his name. Washington's portrait appears on postage stamps, on the $1 bill, and on the quarter.