9.Word order

The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type of the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. We find several principles determining word order in a sentence, so that word order fulfils several functions - grammatical, emphatic, or communicative, and linking. These functions are manifested in different arrangements of the parts of the sentence.

The grammatical function of word order

The main function of word order is to express grammati¬cal relations and determine the grammatical status of a word by fixing its position in the sentence. There exist two ways of arranging words - direct word order and inverted word order.

Direct word order

The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject - Predicate - (Object), which is called direct word order. Direct word order is also employed in pronominal questions to the subject or to its attribute.

Direct word order allows of only few variations in the fixed pattern, and then only for the secondary parts. Thus if there are two objects, the indirect one precedes the direct one, or the prepositional follows the direct one.

As to other secondary parts of the sentence, such as attributes and adverbial modifiers, their position is less fixed. Usually those words that are closely connected tend to be placed together. Accordingly secondary parts referring to their headwords are placed close to them, or are incorporated into, or else frame them up. Thus attributes either premodify or postmodify or frame up their headwords: a bright morning, the problems involved, the scene familiar to us, the happiest man alive, the best skier in the world.

Adverbials and different form words seem to be the most movable parts in the sentence. Their mobility is partly accounted for by their varied reference to different parts of the sentence.

11.The complex sentence with a subject and predicative clause

A subject clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, whether... or, because, the way) or connectives. The latter may be either conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why).

Types of subject clauses

Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns:

I. When a subject clause precedes the predicate of the main clause:

What I need is a piece of good advice.

Whether I talked or not made little difference.

Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious.

How the book will sell depends on its plot and the author.

That he is a madman in an advanced stage of mania goes without saying.

Whoever moved in next would need it more than I.

Subject clauses of this type cannot be joined asyndetically, as the opening words signal the subordinate status of the clause. The main clause having no subject is deficient in its structure and meaning unless joined with the subordinate clause. Thus the combination of words *is a good piece of advice is neither complete in its structure nor in its meaning without the subject: What you say is a good piece of advice.

II. When a subject clause is in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it:

It seemed unfair to him that he should suffer more than his wife.

It is understood that modern science allows such experiments.

In exclamatory sentences the formal it may be only implied.

How wonderful that they should meet at last! (How wonderful it is...)

In this pattern of the complex sentence the subject clause may be joined asyndetically.

The complex sentence with a predicative clause

A predicative clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, whether, whether... or, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way), or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why).

The fact was that he had forgotten about it.

The only reason for my coining is because I hoped to see you again.

Our fear was lest we should miss him in the crowd.

That’s what he wants you to think.

The choice of conjunction is closely connected with the meaning of the word functioning as the subject of the main clause. Thus the conjunction because is used when the word functioning as subject expresses reason, the conjunction whether — when it expresses doubt or implies choice. The connective when is used when the noun functioning as subject expresses a temporal notion (time, day, evening, moment) and the connective where is used when it denotes a place. Thus in the sentence given above The only reason for my coming is because I hoped to see you again the meaning of the subject reason predetermines the use of the conjunction because. In the same way in the sentence The question is whether we can manage without him the meaning of the subject question predetermines the conjunction whether.

This, however, does not mean that a certain conjunction is the only possible one, and that no other can be used after a certain word functioning as subject.

If the subject denotes order, proposal, request, suggestion, arrangement, desire, etc., the conjunction that is generally used, followed by a clause with the predicate in the subjunctive mood (should + infinitive).

The regulation was that the first examination should be done in writing.

Our proposal is that you should join in.

Their suggestion was that no one should interfere.

Predicative clauses with comparative meaning are introduced by the comparative conjunctions as, as if, as though.

It was as though our last meeting was forgotten.

Everything remained as it used to be in this room.

She looks as if she were ill.

Predicative clauses may be joined asyndetically. In this case they are usually separated by a comma or a dash.

The result was, his master raised his wages a hundred a month.

As can be seen from the above examples, a predicative clause has a fixed position in the sentence - it always follows a link verb, with which it forms a compound nominal predicate. The link verbs used with predicative clauses are far less numerous than those used with the nonclausal predicatives. The most common are to be, to feel, to look, to seem. Less frequent are to appear, to remain, to become, to sound, to taste.

Types of predicative clauses

Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:

I. They may follow the main clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning (thing, question, problem, news, sensation, evil, rule, trouble, etc.). In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject.

The rule was that they walked down to the cliff path and travelled up in the lift.

The trouble was whether we could manage it ourselves or not.

The problem is not who will go, but who will stay.

II. The predicative clause may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison.

It appears he hasn’t been there.

It sounded as if even the spring began by act of Parliament.

Care should be taken not to confuse this last type of sentence with complex sentences with a subject clause, which also begins with it. In the latter case the predicate of the main clause is complete, whereas in the case of a predicative clause it consists only of the link verb. Compare the following sentences:

It seems that there is no cure. (a predicative clause)

It seems evident that there is no cure. (a subject clause, the predicate ‘seem evident’ is complete)