- •The adjective. Types of adj. Degrees of comparison.
- •The numeral and its properties.
- •The verb. Classification of verbs.
- •Classification of verbs:
- •The verb. The category of tense
- •6. The category of voice
- •7. The category of aspect in modern English
- •8. The category of mood
- •9. The noun. The category of number
- •10. The noun. The category of case
- •Grammatical peculiarities
- •Formation of tenses
- •Substitutes
- •13. The problem and the essence of the article in English.
- •15. The essence of the Perfect forms.
- •16.The pronoun.
- •17. Statives. The category of State .
- •The Functions of the Stative:
- •18. Morphemes.
- •19. The infinitive
- •I. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •II. The Subjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction (The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)
- •IV. The Absolute Infinitive Construction
- •22. The notion of a grammatical category. Its distinction from notional and philosophical categories.
- •23. Parts of speech and principles of their classification.
- •1 Principle
- •2 Principle
- •3 Principle
- •24. The sentence. The classification of sent-s according to their structure and communicative purposes.
- •25. Types of the simple sentences.
- •27 The object. Types of objects.
- •Types of object
- •Forms of object
- •28 The attribute. Types of attributes.
- •§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into nondetached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •30. The predicate. Types of predicates.
- •31. Phrases. Types of phrases.
- •1. Attributive
- •2. Objective
- •32. Syndetic complex sentences. Types of subordinate clauses.
- •Classification:
- •33. Types of syntactic connection in a phrase:
- •Basic Word Order
- •Word order patterns
- •Word order in different sentences
- •Statements (Declarative sentences)
- •Questions (Interrogative sentences)
- •36. Composite sentences. Its difference from the simple sentence.
- •37. Types of adverbial modifiers.
- •Semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifier
- •§ 100. This adverbial expresses:
- •§ 101. The adverbial of time has four variations:
- •§ 104. This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex.
- •§ 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature).
- •§ 112. This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of.
- •38. The sequence of tences in English. Sequence of tenses in complex sentences
- •Part 2. Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses
- •Present or future in the main clause
- •Past tense in the main clause
- •Exception from the rule
- •The choice of a past tense in the object subordinate clause
- •40. The verb. The categories of person and number.
- •Verb: Person and Number.
- •In a communicative act, third person pronouns can be deictic and non-deictic (anaphoric).
- •In English, only the third person present tense singular form expresses person grammatically; therefore, the verb forms are obligatorily associated with personal pronouns.
- •I shall speak English
- •I am at home.
- •I was at home.
- •42. The semi-complex sentence.
- •43. The semi-compound sentence.
- •45. Смотри 40
- •46. The adverbs.
- •2) Spatial.
The adjective. Types of adj. Degrees of comparison.
The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance. each adjective used in text presupposes relation to some noun. Unlike nouns, adjectives do not possess a full nominative value.
All the adjectives are traditionally divided into 2 large subclasses: qualitative and relative.
Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance (e.g. wood – a wooden hut, history – a historical event). The nature of this relationship in adjectives is best revealed by definitional correlations: e.g. a wooden hut – a hut made of wood; a historical event – an event referring to a certain period of history.
Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their correlative quantitative measure. The measure of a quality can be estimated as high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or excessive (e.g. a difficult task – a very difficult task).
The adjective functions may be grammatically divided into ‘evaluative’ and ‘specificative’. One and the same adjective, irrespective of its being relative or qualitative, can be used either in one or the other function.
e.g. good is basically qualitative, but used as a grading term in teaching it acquires the specificative value (bad, satisfactory, good, excellent).
On the whole, the number of adjectives which can be recog¬nized as such by their suffix seems to be insignificant as compared with the mass of English adjectives. The only morphological problem concerning adjectives is, then', that of degrees of comparison.
The degrees of comparison
The cat. of degrees of comparison is a system of oppositions showing quantitative distinctions of qualities.
We speak of 3 degrees of comparison
Positive – comparative - superlative
The positive degree is not marked. We may speak of a zero morpheme. The comparative and superlative degrees are built up either synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or analytically (with the help of word-morphemes more and most), which depends mainly on the structure of the stem.
Some authors treat more beautiful and the most beautiful not as analytical forms, but as free syntactical combinations of adverbs and adjectives. One of the arguments is that less and least form combinations with adjectives similar to those with more and most: e.g. more beautiful – less beautiful, the most beautiful – the least beautiful.
In order to prove that more beautiful is an analytical form of the comparative degree, we have to prove that more is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with the morpheme –er.
1.More an –er are identical as o their meaning of ‘a higher degree’.
2.Their distribution is complementary. Together they cover all the adjectives having the degrees of comparison. Those adjectives which have comparative opposites with suffix –er have usually no parallel opposites with more and vice versa.
e.g. beautiful – more beautiful (not beautifuller),nice – nicer (not more nice)
One must not forget that more and most are not only word-morphemes of comparison. They can be notional words. They are polysemantic and polyfunctional words. One of the meanings of most is ‘very, exceedingly’ (a most interesting book).
The notional word more in the meaning ‘to greater extent’ can also be used to modify adjectives, as in It’s more grey than brown. More grey here is a combination of words.
The positive degree does not convey the idea of comparison. Its meaning is absolute.
2. The numeral and its properties.