Quotation groups

In distinction of a borderline between a word and a phrase, a word and a sentence is seen most clearly if we turn to the so-called quotation group. In this case a syntactic structure is larger than a word performs the function of a single sentence part: a cat-and dog life. In the E. quotation groups are used as attributes in prep. to a noun because in this language there is no agreement in case, number and gender between a noun and its attribute. From structural viewpoint quotation groups may be equal to:

1. A phrase (a cat-and mouse play);

2. A simple sentence (That boy is I-don’t-care type);

3. A complex sentence (Mamma-thinks-I-am-foolish hairdo);

In Russian quotation groups are called ‘цитатные речения’ and here they are also used most usually as attributes. If in E. all the members of a quotation group are connected with the help of the hyphen to show their unity, in Russian they are taken into quotation marks. Another difference in Russian q. gr. stand in post-position to the noun modified because a prepositive attribute must agree with the noun in case, number and gender while q. gr. can’t do it (прическа «после тифа»; «взрыв на макаронной фабрике»).

Н.Ю. Шведов, а says that in this case phrases and sentences are involved into the sphere of functions of s single word and being used as single word quite often they acquire word-building and word-changing features of those parts of speech in whose function they occur (from every they heard sympathetic ‘not reallys’; The ladies exchanged ‘you look beautifuls’).

The majority of scholars think that q. gr. are non-formations used no more than once. But their frequency in the language is so high that is impossible to think of some derivational patterns of q. gr. (a cat-and dog existence, their face-to-face talk, to wait-and –live attitude, a step-by-step movement). Some of these q. gr. have already been included into the vocabulary of E. or are registered in dictionaries (well-to-do family, would-be student). In the majority of cases q. gr. are very popular in the language of advertisements but sometimes to translate them properly we should have not only linguistic but some extra-linguistic information as well (She bought him a connect-the-dots book).

Grammatical trends in word-changing noun adj PrN

Notional parts of speech have grammatical categories. The grammatical category is a unity of a grammatical meaning and grammatical form. Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning, often belonging to the level of logic.

For example, all the language forms having the meaning of time are united into the category of tense. All the language forms with a quantative meaning are united into the category of number. Language forms expressing sex distinctions are united into the category of gender.

The grammatical form of category is expressed through the paradigm (a word-changing pattern within one and the same category)

E.g. comes come

Came comes

Will come would come

The Noun.

English noun has only 2 grammatical categories: case and number. There is no formal paradigm of expressing gender. English has miscellaneous ways of expressing the idea of gender. The most common way is with the help of the pronoun. The lexicological way: a cock – a hen; a bull – a cow; a man – a woman. Compound nouns: a man driver – a woman driver, a male servant – a female servant. The combination with the pronouns: he-wolf, she-wolf. Suffixes: actor – actress, widow – widower.

The most typical way of deriving the plural number is by adding the inflexions to the form of the singular. Phonetically the inflexion of the plural is represented in 3 variants: {z}, {s} {iz}; from the morphological viewpoint it is one of the same morpheme indicating the plural of nouns. In additional to the regular way in modern English there are some other less frequent ways of deriving the plural number:

1 the inner inflexion (man – men; tooth- teeth) they use the alteration of the root vowel.

2 the nouns which do not change in the plural (sheep- sheep)

3 –en (ox – oxen, child – children).

4 quite a peculiar group of nouns is formed by the words which came with the foreign form of the plural: analysis – analyses; crisis – crises; basic – bases; stratum, datum, memorandum – strata, data, memoranda. Antenna – antenni & antennas; formula – formuli, formulas.

It is obvious that it’s being assimilated in the language and according to the logic the foreign form of the plural is to disappear in the course of time and at this stage the word will be completely assimilated. At present there is a stylistic difference in the choice of either of forms. The foreign forms are used in science, while the English forms penetrate into newspapers and spoken English.

The case is a disputable category of the noun as not all nouns have the-two case system. The genitive case can be found with animate nouns (a boy’s name), nouns denoting time and measure (a day’s rest, mile’s distance).

R. Close made a conclusion that practically the number of nouns used in genitive case in modern E. is much wider. Here belong nouns denoting groups of people, places of their living, various social institutions (Africa’s future, country’s needs, Moscow’s traffic, meeting decision, the Times’ reporter).

Charles Barber mentions the use of the genitive case with a lot of abstract nouns where normally the combination with the preposition ‘of’ should be used (biography’s charm, evil’s power, games’ laws, resorts’ weather).

In the modern E. the so-called group genitive is becoming popular when two or more words are united by the apostrophe (John and Nick’s room, the-girl-I-go-with’s parents). The nouns in modern E. are building their case and number categories synthetically; and the frequency of the genitive case is rising at the expense of inanimate nouns.

The adjective.

It has only one grammatical category: degrees of comparison (the positive, comparative, superlative). Some adjectives build their degree of comparison in the suplitave way, that is they use different stems: good-better-best. Degrees of comparison are built either synthetically, with the help of the suffixes –er or –est or analytically with the help of words more/most. The prescription of normative grammars is that monosyllabic and bi-syllabic adjectives should use the synthetic way and longer adjectives should use analytical combinations (clean – cleaner – the cleanest), but Ch. Barber noticed in an obvious tendency to use analytical forms even with mono- and bi-syllabic adjectives (more fussy, more quiet, simple, clever, pleasant, plain).

Pronouns

Only few pronouns have grammatical categories: personal pronouns – case, number and gender distinctions. In the constructions ‘It’s me’ the objective case is used though the normative grammar insisted on ‘It’s I. It’s he’. The interrogative pronoun who in the nominative case is gradually forcing out the form whom in the oral English; in writing the positions of form whom is stable, especially in official language.

Pronouns

Two cases: common and genitive. But 6 pronouns have an objective case, thus presenting a 3-case system, where common case is replaced by subjective and objective.