Шпоры по стилистике английского языка

5. The notion of a term.Its characteristics and st. f-s.Scientific prose.

T. are w-ds denoting various scientifical & techn. Objects, phenomena & processes. They are found in techn. Texts where they are indespensible means of expressing ideas. They directly refer to the o-t they mean. They are emotionally neutral. They are: 1- monosemantic; 2-m-ng doesn’t depend on the context;3-it remains constant until some new invention changes it(wireless set=radio); 4- no emotional colouring,but it can obtain it when taken out from techn. Sphere.

St-c f-s: 1- to create a realistic background for the novel;2- ### a humorous effect if t. are used in lexical surrounding abs-ly foreign to them. T. gradually lose their quality of terms & pass into common literary or neutral vocabulary.

T. are mainly used in scient. Prose. This style includes different articles, monographs, conference proceedings & other kinds of academic publications.the main ch-cs are precision,logical cohesion, repeated use of clichés.

6 newspaper st. var-s & pecul-s, distinction from pub-c st.

includes informative materials: news in brief, headlines, ads, additional articles. But not everything published in the paper can be included in N.S. we mean publicist essays, feature articles, scient. Reviews are not N.S. to attract the readers attention special means are used by british & am. Papers ex: specific headlines, space ordering. We find here a large proportion of dates, personal names of countries, institutions, individuals. To achieve an effect of objectivity in rendering some fact or event most of info is published anonymously, without the name of newsman who supplied it, with little or no subjective modality. But the position of the paper becomes clear from the choice not only of subj. matter but also of words denoting international or domestic issues.

7 the style of official documents

it is the most conservative. It preserves cast-iron forms of structuring& uses syntactical constr-s words known as archaic & not observed any more else. Addressing documents and official letters, signing them, expressing the reasons and considerations leading to the subject of the doc-t – all this is strictly regulated both lexically & syntact. All emotiveness and subj. modality are completely banned out of this style. ( contracts, treaties, agreements etc.)

8. publicist style.

(oratory, speeches, essays, articles) the style is a perfect ex. Of historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In Greece it was practiced in oral form which was named P. in accordance with the name of its corresponding genre. PS is famouse for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader & shaping his views in accordance with the argumentation of the author. We find in PS a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things & a strong subjectivity reflecting the authors personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject.

9. Peculiarities of belles-lettres style, its varieties & genres. Belle-letters style (the style of fiction) embraces:1)poetry; 2)drama; 3)emotive prose. B-l style or the style of imaginative literature may be called the richest register of communication: besides its own lan-ge means which are not used in any other sphere of communication, b-l st. makes ample use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find elements of scientific, official and other functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive functions, also found in other functional styles, the b-l style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically. The form becomes meaningful and carries additional info. Boundless possibilities of expressing one's thoughts and feelings make the b-l style a highly attractive field of research for a linguist.

The belles-lettres style, in each of its concrete representations, fulfils the aesthetic function, which fact singles this style out of others and gives grounds to recognize its systematic uniqueness, i.e. charges it with the status if an autonomous functional style.

10. Archaisms & their stylistic functions.

Archaisms: a)obsolete (устаревшие) words; b) historical words; c)archaisms proper.

a) obsolete – are words which had fallen out of use completely as they have been replaced by syn-ms. Ex. dress (ModE) - habit (obsolete word), I think (ModE) – methinks (ob.w).

b) historical novelists make use of historical w. They are applied to concepts reflecting the past stages of the dev-nt of humankind. Ex. vassal –слуга. Such w-s are numerous in histirical novels as names of social relations, institutions & objects of material culture of the past. Ex. gonflat – перчатка. The limited usage of hist. words isn’t caused by linguistic factors but social ones. Stylistic function of h.w-s: to create a true to life background in the hist-al novels.

c) archaic words proper haven’t dropped out of usage completely as they are used in poetry & some official doc-ts. Ex. hither (here) / thither (there)

11. Peculiarities of poetic & highly literary words. Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. They have a marked tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock and gradually assume the quality of terms denoting certain definite notions and calling forth poetic diction. Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. This may be said to be the main function of poetic words. Poetical tradition has kept alive such archaic words and forms as quoth (to speak); eftsoons (eftsona,— again, soon after), which are used even by modern ballad-mongers. The use of poetic words does not as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry in the true sense; it is a substitute for real art. Poetic words are not freely built in contrast to neutral, colloquial and common literary words, or terms. The commonest means is by compounding, e. g. 'young-eyed', 'rosy-fingered'.

12. Difference b/w foreign words & barbarisms, their stylistic functions. In the voc-ry of the E lan-e there is a considerable layer of words called bar-ms. These are words of foreign origin, which have not entirely been assimilated into the E lan-ge. They bear the appearance of a borrowing & are felt as smth alien to the native tongue. The role foreign borrowings played in the dev-nt of the E literary lan-ge is well known, & the great majority of these borrowed w-ds now form part of the rank & file of the E voc-ry. It is the science of ling-cs, in particular its branch etymology, that reveals the foreign nature of this or that word. But most of what were formerly foreign borrowings are now, from a purely stylistic position, not regarded as foreign. But still there are some words, which retain their foreign appearance to a greater, or lesser degree. These words, which are called bar-ms, are, like archaisms, also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary lan-ge. Most of them have corresponding E synonyms; e. g. chic (=stylish); en passant (= in passing); and many other w-s and phrases. It is very imp-nt for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish b/n bar-ms & foreign w-s proper. Bar-ms are w-s, which have already become facts of the E lan-ge. They are, as it were, part and parcel of the E word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary voc-ry. For-n w-s, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the E voc-ry. They are not registered by E dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign w-s most frequently used in literary E. Bar-ms are generally given in the body of the dictionary. In printed works foreign w-s & phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.

13.Main characteristics of slang.

Slang-very ambiguous(двусмысл.) & obscure(неясн.).S. seems to mean everything that is below the standart usage of present day English.It’s the lowest layer of E-sh voc-ry,the usage of which is regarded the violation of standart E-sh.S. is used in dialects(to reflect informal & emotional character of a conversation).S. serves to charac-ze the person who is using it.(E.g.:go mad=go nuts,shut up=belt up,boaster=big head.).Slang words are more emotive,inpoetic if compared to their neutral synonyms:nonsence=rot,money=bucks.S. can be used for those words,which are either mispronounced phonetically,morph-ly,lexically:leggo=let go. S. broad & embracing.It is regarded as the quint-essence(концентрат) of colloquial speech & therefore it stands above all laws of grammar.Some S. words loose their feature of novelty & become common literary words.(E.g.:(Br.)go to the pictures=go to the movies(Am).S. needs to translation. S. differs from ordinary lang-ge in its voc-ry.But the structure of the sentence and the morph-gy remains practically unchangeable

14.Proffesional & social jargonisms & their stylistic functions.

Jargon-a term for a group of words that exist in almost every language and their aim is to preserve secrecy within 1 or another social group.Jargonism-old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them(E.g.:greese=money,loaf=head).In Br. and USA almost every social group has its jargon.The Jargon of jazz,of army,of sportsment,of the youth. Groups of J.:1)social j-n;2)professional j-n.1)-is used by part. social classes & groups to conceal the subject of their conversation.2)-by prof. groups of people to give new,more expressive names to tools,machines,processes connected with the given occupation.Prof-s may be regarded as colloquial synonyms of terms but terms are supposed to be known to a wider audience and they devoid of emotional colouring.(E.g.:bulls=people who buy the shares,bears=p. who sell the shares,piper=who plays pipes & p. who decorate cakes).Such kind of words should be explained to “foreign people”-who don’t belong to this prof./social gr.J. differs from ordinary lang-ge in its voc-ry.But the structure of the sentence and the morph-gy remains practically unchangeable. Ways of creating j-sms:1)foreign borrowings;2)phonetic deformations.(E.g.:manany=to sailor who puts off job till some other time;spain-manjana=tomorrow).Many non-lit-ry words become assimilated and enter the lit-ry lang-ge. They become dejargonized(kid,fun,bluff).

15.Place & role of dialectal words in the national lang-ge & in a literary text.

Dialectal words have come from dialects & still retain their dialectal character.Many D. words have become so familiar in good colloquial lang-ge,that they became universally accepted (E.g.:lass=girl,lad=a young man).Many of them are of Scottish origin.Of quite a dif. nature-D. words which are easily recognized as corruptions of standard English words,although etimologically they may have sprung the pecularities of certain dialects.(E.g.:hinny=honey,titty=sister).D. words create a realistic background (loc. colouring) when used in a novel.They show from which place the person came,characterize him(his personality) through the speech & are mostly used in emotive prose.Other dialects used for stylistic purposes:1)Southern D. of Britain(Sommersitshcher);2)initial [s],[th] are voiced & are written in literary speech of ch-s as z & v(e.g. folk=volk,see=zee).Some D. words are introduced by writer which are understandable to the intelligent reader(e.g. maister=master,weel=wheel,enengh=enough).

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Bar-ms, on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special load of stylistic info. There are foreign w-s in the E voc-ry, which fulfill a terminological function. It is evident that bar-ms are a historical category. Many foreign w-s & phrases which were once just foreign w-s used in literary E to express a concept non-existent in E reality, have little by little entered the class of words named bar-ms and many of these bar-ms have gradually lost their foreign peculiarities, become more or less naturalized and have merged with the native E stock of w-s. Another function of bar-ms and foreign w-s is, to build up the stylistic device of non-personal direct speech or represented speech. The use of a w-d, or a phrase, or a sentence in the reported speech of a local inhabitant helps to reproduce his actual w-s, manner of speech & the-environment as well.

16.Literary coinages & neologisms, ways of their formation & distinction.

There are words which appear as names od new phenomena,presenting one of the ways of enriching the voc-ry.There exist dif-nt names e.g.-terminalogical coinages.A great number of words still remain individual creations & don’ appear at the pages of the book in which they have originated.Such words are called-individual(stylistic)coinages or neologisms.Their maim f-n-1)to help the writer to achieve laconism of style & expressivness;2)to create a humorous effect;Most of new words of the 16-17^th cent.-mostly borrowings(Latin,Greek,French).They are easily understood by the community,they follow the existengword building patterns in structure.Most of literary bookish coinages-by means of affixation or word-compounding.New words built in this manner will be immediatlyperdeved because of their unexpectedness. Unexpectedness in the use of words-the natural device for those writers who sick to achieve the sensational effect.Conversation,derivation & change of meaning-the most productive in creating neologisms(e.g.-to bus children to school,cats mother tigers).Affixation remains the most popular & common(e.g.-Every man in the aura of success tests the goodhood).Affixes:-anty=antyhero,-ize=villagize,moisturize,dom=wisdomgangdom,-ship=showmanship,misessship,-ese=Johnsonese & Dickensian style,-un=to undo,-thon=marathon,talkathon,dancethone(suffixsoid as it is part of a word).

Продолжение 16

Nonce-words-coined to suit 1 particular occasion(e.g. importunity-opportunity,positutly-absolutely positive).Vogueish-blending(слова слитки),they are called telescoping words(e.g. motel=motorcar+hotel,botel=boat+hotel,brunch=breakfast+lunch).Also there are words coined by contractions(усечение) & abbreviations(e.g. LOX=liquid oxygen explosive).

17.Lexical meanings of a word & their components.  Lexical m-gs are logical nominal & emotional m-gs. Logical m-g is an expression of the general features or concepts of a given thing or phenomenon through 1 of its qualities. Concept refers to a logical sphere. Corresponding ling. category is m-g. In the process of its development the word may acquire additional meanings & becomes polysemantic. A logical m-g may be subdivided into dependent & independent. Ind. log. m-g exists in a word irrespectively of the word combination where it is used(to grow-расти). Dependent log. m-g can be brought out only in context.(to grow older - становиться старше). Nominal m-g names a thing or a being & marks it with a specific label. It conveys no thoughts, but simply gives name to an object to single it out. There r words where a nominal m-g prevails. These are proper names. Generally proper names have developed from common nouns. Emotive m-g expresses the feeling & emotions connected with the object r phenomenon denoted by a word. E. m-g generally coexist with the log m-g or prevails. So it is fixed in the dictionaries. There are words which have only emotive m-g - interjections & exclamatory words. Certain adj. & adv. tend to loose their log. m-g & have a strong emotive coloring. She is terribly sweet ( an intensifier) These 3 lexical m-gs form the semantic str-re of the word. There exists

Продолжение 17

1 more lexical m-g which appears only within the

given context. this is called the contextual m-g. The majority of stylistic devices are based on the interaction of different lexical m-gs of the word.

19.Graphical stylistic means, kinds of graphons.

In modern advertising, mass media & creative prose sound is foregrounded through the change of its accepted graphical representation. The intentional violation of the graphical shape of word or word comb-n used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called a graphon. Introduced into E. novels & journalisms in the 18 century graphon proved to be an extremely effective means of supplying info about speaker’s origin, social & educ. Background, physical & emot. condition, etc. (sellybrated, illygitmet). Graphons are also good at conveying atmosphere of authentic life communication. We have such clichés as in conversation as gotta, wonna, gimme, lemme, wille, nowaru.It becomes popular with advertisers. E.g.: Pik-wik(pick quick). There also exist dif. Forms of foregrounding: 1)capitalization, 2)italics, 3)spacing of graphemes: - hyphenation(ч/з дефис, с пробела); multiplication(1 &the same letter written several times). A special trend- graphical imagism: e.g. the whole poem is written in form of a bird.

20. The notion of a metaphor, its peculiarities & varieties. M. is a stylistic device based on interaction b/w the logical & contextual m-gs of the word which is based on likeness b/w objects & implies analogy & comparison b/w them. Money burns a hole in my pocket( wants to send).The genuine metaphor is the expression of a writer's individual vision. It is through the metaphor that the writer reveals his emotional attitude towards the described. It implies analogy & likeness to concrete things, makes abstract ideas more complex, complex ideas more simple. E.g. there was no May morning in his cowardly heart. the stylistic functions of the M. r: 1) by evoking images & suggesting analogies it makes the author's thought more concrete definite & clear.2) it reveals the author's emotional attitude towards the described. It can be expressed with the help f n, adj, adv,v. The leaves fell sorrowfully.(adv) Metaphors expressed by adj adv are called metaphorical epithets. Sometimes M. is not confined to 1 word & the author uses a sustained or prolonged M. to prolong his image. This is done by adding a number of other images closely connected with the main central one. Varieties of metaphors: 1)personification - a special  kind of metaphor in which abstract ideas or inanimate objects r identified with person. They r ascribed human characteristics. (Mother nature always blushes before disrobing)2)animalification - a special kind of M. in which abstract ideas or inanimate objects r identified with the bists.

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They are ascribed animal characteristics or actions. They are generally based on verbs & adj-s.( Words & words & words how they gallop+)

21.Oxymoron –a combination of 2 words mostly an adj+ a noun or adv+adj expressing 2 contrasting ideas opposite in sense (A living copse, a low sky scarper, horribly beautiful)

Ox-n m.b. expressed by verb+adv-s (to smear-пачкать pleasantly)

//=//=// by adj+preposit.phrase(ugly in a pleasant way). In ox-n a logic m-g is surpressed by emotive m-g.In such a way this trope the complexity of things, contedectories of the wor(l)d. (She cried silently) Ox-n is often met within a simile(образн. сравн.) (He was gentle as hell).Ox-n is practically never repeated in diff.context and doesn’t become traid(you are awfully nice, pretty bad) The words have lost the primary logical m-g and are used only with emotive m-g as intensifiers, they have lost their stylistic value.

22.Antonomasia-stylistic device based on interaction b/w logical and nominal m-g of a word. Types of an-a:1)when a proper noun is used for a common noun.Proper name is this type of a-a

expresses some quality which was a loading passion w char-r whose name is used. It describes a person’s features and qualities through those commonly asso-ed with the name of some histor.figure or some mythological,religious,literary ch-r.It’s stylistic f-n:to give concrete expression to abstract things.Ex:Some modern Samsons were walking by.(a really strong person)

2)when a common noun is used for a proper noun. Often they are used to create a humorous effect.In the 18-19c it was customary to provide literary char-rs with speaking names/telltale names.They styl.f-n:to char-ze a person through his nameMr.Scruge,Oliver Twist. Interesting

are cases when contextual, nominal m-g is aquired by a word-comb-n or a whole phrase.Names

phrases are usually spelled with hypons:b/w their components to stress their close syntactical and symentic relations.Mr.Facing-both-ways(вашим и нашим)

23.Methonomy –a device in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing.Unlike methaphor where the interaction b/w the m-gs of diff.words is based on resemblance,meth-my reflects the actually existing relations.Night was a friend(m-r)No eye to see no ear to listen(m-y)Those words have aquired contextual, logical m-gs that of people. The interaction b/w cont/log m-g is based on close relations objectively existing b/w the part of the body itself.

24.Zeugma –a simultaneous realization of 2 m-gs of 1 polysem. word within the same context. The boys took their places and their books . Jane wasn’t narrow woman in mend and body. Here we feelthe blending of 2/more semantically incompatible w-groups having an identical lexical item make a single construction in which this item is used only once.The resulting effect-strongly humorous/ ironical.The same effect is achieved when a word upon which this trope is based is repeated

Pun(каламбур) –a play of words . The diff. b/w is very slight. For a pun the context m.b. of a more expanding ch-r. Sometimes the whole novel.(The importance of being honest(o.w-d))The same happens with ambiguous usage of prepositions which leads to mixing up of attribute with prepositional object.

To hint the woman with a child

Two homonyms have much less in common than 2 m-gs of a polysem words.Thus their realization within the same context brings force a pun. Puns are often used in riddles and joke.What is the diff. b/w a schoolmaster engine driver (one trains the mind and the other minds the train) We can observe a violation of phrasal units – humorous effect

25.Epithets & their varieties.(КОНСПЕКТ)

E.-a styl. device based on the interplay of emotive & logical meanings in an attributive word,phrase or even a sentence used to charact-ze an object and disclose the individ.emot-lycoloured attitude of the writer to the object.(E.g:green meadows,white snow,round table-they describe real natural qualities).E. may be expressed by:1)adjective;2)adverb(He watched her sadly,eagerly);3)Participle I,II(The freightened movements of the wind);4)nouns(A brief season of happiness).Phrase or sent-ce E. can describe behaviour,manners,facial expression.They are charac-c of modern English prose.There exist a type of the E. based on illogical syntactical relationship between the modifier and the modified.It’s calledthe reversed E. composed of 2 nouns linked in an off-phrase.The evaluating emotional element is emboarded not in the noun attribute but in the noun structurally described.E. can be regarded as:1)those stressing the existing qualities of the object(She was hopefully,sadly,lonely for smth. Better);2)those transferring the qualities of 1 object to its closest neighbour(Tobacco stained(=teeth) smile).Transferred E.-are ordinally logical attribute generally describing the state of a human being made to refer to inanimate(неодуш.) object(Sleepless pillow.An anbreakfasted mornings).Methaphorical E.-a new feature is revealed(показывается)(The moon looked lovingly).E.may become стертые-traditional(Sweet smile.Deep feelings.Sweet words).It shouldn’t be mixed up with logic.

25. Epithets and their varieties.(КНИГА)

E.-a styl. device based on the interplay of emotive & logical meanings in an attributive word,phrase or even a sentence used to charact-ze an object and disclose the individ.emot-ly coloured attitude of the writer to the object.(E.g:green meadows,white snow,round table-they describe real natural qualities).E. expresses char-cs of an object, both existing and imaginary.E. basic feature-its emotiveness and subjectivity. E. can describe behaviour,manners,facial expression.E.may become стертые-traditional(Sweet smile.Deep feelings.Sweet words).E.Through long and repeated use epithets become fixed. Many fixed epithets are closely connected with folklore and can be traced back to folk ballads (e.g. "true love", "merry Christmas", etc.). The structure and semantics of E. are extremely variable. Semantically, there are 2 main groups 1)affective (or emotive proper)- E. serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker(most of the qualifying words found in the dictionary,e.g. "gorgeous", "nasty", "magnificent", "atrocious".);2) figurative, or transferred, E. - is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes expressed by adjectives(E.g. "the smiling sun", "the frowning cloud", "the sleepless pillow", ''the tobacco-stained smile", "a ghost-like face", "a dreamlike experience".).E. are expressed by: 1)adjectives or 2)qualitative adverbs (e.g. "his triumphant look" = he looked triumphantly),3)nouns;4) participle I,II.

26.Simile,its difference from a traditional comparison.(КОНСПЕКТ)

Simile-expresses likeness between dif. objects.It shouldn’t be confused between an ordinary comparison,as in ordinary comparison no imagination is involved since objects of the same class are compared.S. is based on the comparison of object of dif. spheres involves the element of imagination and exclude all the properties of 2 objects except 1 which is more common to them(as clever as his mother - ordinary comparison;as strong as an ox-S.).The properties of an objects may be viewed from dif. angles-its states,actions,manners.S. may be based on adj. attributed,adverb. Modifier,verb predicates.S. have a formal element in their structure,called connective word-like,such as,as,as…if,seem,mostly.The S. must not be confused with methaphor:My verses flow in streams(methaphor),My verses flow like streams(S.).The ling. nature of these 2 devices is different.The styl. func-n of a S. is the same as of methaphor:1)to eteiplete the object by comparing it with some other object of an entirely dif. nature, to make the description clear and more picturesqere.Hacknate S.:as strong as a lion.

26.Simile,its difference from a traditional comparison.(КНИГА)

Simile -a structure of three components; is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. Link words "like", "as", "as though", "as like", "such as", "as...as", etc.S. should not be confused with simple (logical, ordinary) comparison. Structurally identical they are semantically different: objects belonging to the same class are likened in a simple comparison, while in a S. we deal with the likening of objects belonging to two different classes. So, "She is like her mother" is a simple comparison, used to state an evident fact. "She is like a rose" is a S. used for purposes of expressive evaluation, emotive explanation, highly individual description.The case of sustained expression of likeness is known as epic, or Homeric simile. In a S. two objects are compared on the grounds of similarity of some quality. This feature is called foundation of a S, may be explicitly mentioned as in: "He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent", or "His muscles are hard as rock".You see that the "rock” in two different S. offers two different qualities as their foundation - "immovable" in the 1st case, and "hard" in the 2nd. When the foundation is not explicitly named, the S. is considered to be richer in possible associations.So "the rose" of the previous case allows to simultaneously foreground such features as "fresh, beautiful, fragrant, attractive", etc. Sometimes the foundation of the S. is not quite clear from the context, and the author supplies it with a key, where he explains which similarities led him to liken two different entities, and which in fact is an extended and detailed foundation.

Продолжение 25 (конспект)

Attribute,with the same syntact. func-n but not convey the subjective attribute of author towards the object but show only objectively existing features of the object(He unlocked the iron gate easily).Logic. attributed carried in chains of attributes undergo a certain changer,being influenced by their emotionally coloured neighbours & also equire an emotive colouring(The money she had accepted was to soft,green,handsome 10-$ bills.(=a new thing).

Продолжение 25 (книга)

They are used as exclamatory sentences ("You, ostrich!") or as postpositive attributes ("Richard of the Lion Heart").E. are used singly, in pairs, in chains, in two-step structures, and in inverted constructions, also as phrase-attributes. All previous examples are single E..Pairs are-two E. joined by a conjunction or asyndetically as in "wonderful and incomparable beauty" or "a tired old town". Chains (strings) of E. present a group of homogeneous attributes varying in number from 3 up to smtimes 20 and more(E.g. "You're a scolding, unjust, abusive, aggravating, bad old creature."). Two-step E.-the process of qualifying seemingly passes two stages: the qualification of the object and the qualification of the qualification itself, as in "an unnaturally mild day", or "a pompously majestic female".Two-step E. have a fixed structure of Adv + Adj model.Phrase-epithets always produce an original impression: "the sunshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell", or "a move-if-you-dare expression". One more structural type of E.-inverted E.- based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa. E.g. instead of "this devilish woman", where "devilish" &"woman" are both logically and syntactically defining.W. Thackeray says "this devil of a woman".

28.Periphrasis and its kinds. Euphemistic periphrasis.(КОНСПЕКТ)

P.-word-combination that is used instead of a word,designating an object.Every P. contains a purely individ. Perseptionof a given phenomen.As a result of frequent repetition P. may become well-established in language as a synonymous expression for the word,generally used to signify the object.Such popular word-combinations-“pariphrasic synonyms” and can be easily understood without any context.(An internal city(Rome),A gentleman of a long robe(lawyer).P. may be:1)logical-is based on log. notions;a certain feature of an object is taken to denote the whole object or a wider notion is substituted for the concrete notion(The instruments of distrucktion(pistol)).2)figurative- may be based on the methaphor(back foolish tears;back to your native spring(=eyes)).May be based on metonomy(he married a good deal of money(=rich lady)).3)ephimistic-a word/phrase used to replace a rude word or expression by a mild,delecate and conventionally more acceptable one.(to die-pass away,expire,to be no more,join the majority).These E.P.-part of a l-ge as a system.They haven’t been freshly invented and are expressive means of a l-ge and are to be found in all good dictionaries.Thus they can’t be regarded as a styl-c devie.E.P. may be divided into groups:according to the spheres of application:1)religious(God-Lord,Our Father);2)moral(to die); 3)medical(have a cold(greek terms);4)parliamentary(political);

Продолжение 26 (книга)

S., often repeated, becomes trite(банальный) and adds to the stock of language phraseology. Most of trite S. have the foundation mentioned and conjunctions "as", "as...as" used as connectives: "as brisk as a bee", "as strong as a horse", "as live as a bird".S. in which the link is expressed by notional verbs such as "to resemble", "to seem", "to recollect", "to remember", "to look like", "to appear", etc. are called disguised, because the realization of the comparison is somewhat suspended, as the likeness between the objects seems less evident:"The ball appeared to the batter to be a slow spinning planet looming toward the earth." .

27.Overstatement and understatement(hyperbole).

Hyperbole - a styl-c device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration,relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning.H.-one of the most common expressive means of our everyday speech. When we describe our admiration or anger and say "a hundred times" - we use trite language hyperboles which, through long and repeated use, have lost their originality and remained signals of the speaker's roused emotions.

H. may be the final effect of another SD - metaphor, simile, irony, as we have in the cases "The man was like the Rock of Gibraltar".H. can be expressed by all notional parts of speech.Words though which styl. device are used more often "all", ''every", "everybody"."Calpurnia was all angles and bones"; also numerical nouns ("a million", "a thousand"), as was shown above; and adverbs of time ("ever", "never").Was stressed the importance of both communicants clearly perceiving that the exaggeration, used by one of them is intended as such and serves not to denote actual quality or quantity but signals the emotional background of the utterance. If this reciprocal understanding of the intentional nature of the overstatement is absent, hyperbole turns into a mere lie.H. is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality. When it is directed the opposite way, when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are hot overrated, but intentionally underrated, we deal with understatement. The mechanism of its creation and functioning is identical with that of H.,

Продолжение 25(2) (книга)

Here "of a woman" is syntactically an attribute, i.e. the defining, and "devil" the defined, while the logical relations between the two remain the same as in the previous example - "a woman" is defined by "the devil".All inverted E. are easily transformed into E. of a more habitual structure where there is no logico-syntactical contradiction.: "the giant of a man" (a gigantic man); "the prude of a woman" (a prudish woman), etc.Do not mix up an inverted E. with an ordinary off-phrase.The second noun will help you in doubtful cases: "the toy of the girl" (the toy belonging to the girl); "the toy of a girl" (a small, toylike girl).

28.Periphrasis and its kinds. Euphemistic periphrasis.(КНИГА)

Periphrasis is a very peculiar stylistic device which basically consists of using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one, i.e. of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word. Depending on the mechanism of this substitution,P.are classified into 1)figurative (metonymic and metaphoric),2)logical.1)is made of phrase-metonymies and phrase-metaphors:"The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa" where the extended metonymy stands for "the wounded".Logical P. are phrases synonymic with the words which were substituted by P.:"Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires." "The conventional disguise" stands here for "the suit" and "the shame of American millionaires" — for "the paunch (the belly)". Because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description this P. may be also considered 3)euphemistic, as it offers a more polite qualification instead of a coarser one.The main func-n of P. is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object. To achieve it the generally accepted nomination of the object is replaced by the description of one of its features or qualities, which seems to the author most important for the characteristic of the object, and which thus becomes foregrounded.

33. Stylistic usage of proverbs, sayings, allusions, citations.

A proverb is a brief witty phrase of generalizing nature characterized by a completeness of thought & generally expressing the wisdom of people. Many of them have a verse-like shape(Early to bed early to rise makes a man healthy& wise).Brevity in proverbs manifests itself in the omission of connectives (First come first served).

A saying is a common phrase dif. from a proverb in that the thought is not completely expressed. Proverbs & sayings used in fiction make it clearer & more emotional (which side his bread was buttoned – not to be foolish, know how to behave)

Allusion is a reference to a well-known historical, literary or mythological object. The use of allusions presupposes the knowledge of the fact, thing or person alluded to n the part of the reader or listener. As a rule no indication of thought is given.(I’m going to clean Again stables –means that u have a disorder. The last of the Mohican) Allusions like citations often show that the character is eager to display his education o wit.

Citation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech or the like used by the way of authority, illustration, proof. They r usually marked in the text by inverted commas, dashes, italics & other graphical means. This is a natural utterance made by a certain author.

Продолжение 27

and it does not signify the actual state' of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker. It is not the actual diminishing or growing of the object that is conveyed by a H. or Underst-t.They differ only in the direction of the flow of roused emotions. English is well known for its preference for understatement in everyday speech - "I am rather annoyed" instead of "I'm infuriated”.Some H. and U. (both used individually and as the final effect of some other styl. device) have become fixed, as we have in "Snow White", or "Liliput", or "Gargantua".

34. Stylistic peculiarities of oral speech, syntactical stylistic devices characteristic for it.

Syntax deals with the arrangement of words into combinations. Stylistic study begins with the study of length & structure of a sent-ce.

The human can receive & transmit info only if it is slit by pauses. Theoretically a sent-ce can be of any length, but psychologically no reader can receive info where a stop comes after 128 words.(James “Ulysses”-a stop after 45 pages).

The lowest limit is 1 word.1-wod sent-s have a very strong emphatic impact. This word obtains both the word & sent-ce stress.(On.Off.)Word order, structure of a sent-ce, punctuation, intonation are an imp. part for perception of a text.

Intonation m.create, add & reverse both logical & emotional info of an utterance. Punctuation is much poorer than int-n. It isn’t used alone, but emphasizing & substantiating the lex/syntect m-g of the components of a sent-ce.( its marks- oints of exclamation(!), interogatin(?), dots(…), dashes(-),commas, semicolon(;),full stop.

Groups of syntactical devices:1)devices used within a s-ce;2)devices used within an ut-ce; 3)devices based on special use of connection b/w s-ces & phrases.

D-ces used within a s-ce:

1)based on juxtaposition

a)inversion(the violationof traditional wod order which doesn’t alter the m-g of the s-ce,but gives it an addit./emotional colouring. I-n is used to single out some parts f the s-ce & heighten the emotional tension.

Продолжение 28(книга)

The often repeated P. become trite(банальный) and serve as universally accepted periphrastic synonyms: "the gentle / soft / weak sex" (women); "my better half (my spouse); "minions of Law" (police), etc.

35.stylistic use of the interrogative & negative constructions

a)rhetorical ?-s(it is not supposed to be answered, since the only answer is implied within the boundaries of the ?-n. They are often used in the “– “ form. Have I not suffered things to be forgiven? The discrepancy b/w the form(“-“) & the essence(the statement is positive) makes the rh? very emphatic & widely used in oratorical style(style of public speaking)It is widely used in modern fiction in informal dialogues, when in distress or anger with the phrases like: what have I dne to deserve it? what shall I do when? Such forms r further stressed by exclamation alongside with interrogation marks.

The stylistic force of rh? is in the simultaneous realization of 2 syntactical m-ngs: the m-g of a ?, statement.

b)Litotes(a statement in the form of a double negation, where 2 are joined to give a “+” evaluation. E.g. not unkindly means kindly, thus the “+” effect is weakened.the str-re of L. is rigid.Besides the not there is a 2-nd element negative in form or in m-g.Sometimes L. is used to create the effect of irony, but the main its function is to make the statement less categoric.

3. The notion of an idiolect, an individual style, registers of speech.

Stylistics – is a science which deals with the result of the act of communication. When we speak about individual style it means the individual manner of writing. The speach of an individ. which is ch-ed by peculiarities typical of that particular individual is called an idiolect. For a writer it’s marked by its uniques. We shall call an individual style – a unique combination of language. Expressive means peculiar to a given writer, which makes his works easily recognized

Продолжение 34

b)isolated members of a s-ce(detachment)(based on singling out a secondary member of the s-ce with the help of inton-n & punct-n. The word order isn’t violated,but second members obtain there own stress & inton-n as they are detached from the rest of the s-ce by: commas, dashes,full stops. I have to beg u for money. Daily. Detachment is used to give prominence to some words to help the author laconically draw the reader’s attention to a certain detail.

2)styl. use f the peculiarities of oral speech:

ellipses

a)ellipses(Omission of some part of a s-ce. It may occur due to a careless informal, careless char-r of speech.(Serve him right)El-s not only makes the s-ces laconic, but also creates the effect of implication.

b)aposiopesis(умолч-е)

A sudden break in speech,caused by strong emotion or by some reluctance to finish the s-ce. break is a result of seaker’s uncertainty as to what exactly he is to romise or threaten.Is graphically marked by a series of dots or a dash. Good impatience, but -

c)represented speech(representation of the actual ut-ce by a second person usually the author as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken, but is only represented in the author’s words).

Продолжение 34(3)

Stylistic devices used within an ut-ce:

1)d. based on repetition(the recurrence of the same word, w.-comb-n, phrase for 2 or more times(anaphora(a..,a…),

epiphora(…a,…a),

framing(a…,…a),catch rep-n(…a,a…),chain r-n(…a,a…b,b…c), ordinary r-n(has no cetain place …a,a,a…), successive r-n(a steam of closely fol-ing each other repeated units On her father’s being groundlessly suspective she felt sure,sure,sure).Stylistic f-n of r-n is to emphasize the most imp part of the ut-ce rendering emotions of the speaker.There r some d-s based on r-n of some idea(synonymical

r-n:1)pleonasm(the use of more words in the s-ce then necessary to express the m-g),2)tautology-the r-n(the r-n of the same word/phrase or the same idea or statement in other words often in dif. gram.forms).

2)Devices based on parallelism. Parallel constructions are formed by the same syntactical pattern closely following one another. Par. c-s effect the rhythmical org-n of the paragraph.It is widely used in oratorical speech. 2 types of parallelism:

a) complete(the str-re of the whole sent-ce is repeated),b)partial(some parts of the successive s-ces/clauses are repeated)

- the reversed parallel constr-n(chiasmus)(I know the world the world knows me)

The 2^nd part of ch-s – the inversion of the 1^st construction.

36. Stylistic devices based on special arrangement of the arts f an utterance.

1)climax(gradation)

a structure in which every successive s-ce is emotionally stronger r log-ly more imp. than the preceding one.E.g. For that one instant there was none else in the room, in the house in the world besides themselves. 3 types of climax: quantative, qualative(emotive), logical(every new concept is stronger, more imp. & valued)As counterpart to C. stands anti-C.(emotion or logical imp-ce is accumulated only to be unexpectedly broken & brught t a sudden cadence) This was appalling & soon forgot.

2)suspense(обманутое ожидание) a deliberate slowing down of a thought postponing its completion till the end of the ut-ce. To hold the reader in suspense means to keep the final solution just out of the sight. Detective/adventure stories – examples of suspense fiction.

3)antithesis a styl. device presenting 2 contrasting ideas in close neighborhood. Synt-ly it is another case of parallelism but unlike p-sm which is indifferent to the semantics, the 2 parts of antithesis must be semantically opposite to each other. Its styl .f-n is to create the effect of contrast.

Продолжение 34(2)

3)stylistic use of the interrogative & negative constructions

a)rhetorical ?-s(it is not supposed to be answered, since the only answer is implied within the boundaries of the ?-n. They are often used in the “– “ form. Have I not suffered things to be forgiven? The discrepancy b/w the form(“-“) & the essence(the statement is positive) makes the rh? very emphatic & widely used in oratorical style(style of public speaking)It is widely used in modern fiction in informal dialogues, when in distress or anger with the phrases like: what have I dne to deserve it? what shall I do when? Such forms r further stressed by exclamation alongside with interrogation marks.

The stylistic force of rh? is in the simultaneous realization of 2 syntactical m-ngs: the m-g of a ?, statement.

b)Litotes(a statement in the form of a double negation, where 2 are joined to give a “+” evaluation. E.g. not unkindly means kindly, thus the “+” effect is weakened.the str-re of L. is rigid.Besides the not there is a 2-nd element negative in form or in m-g.Sometimes L. is used to create the effect of irony, but the main its function is to make the statement less categoric.

Продолжение 34(4)

3)stylistic use of the interrogative & negative constructions

a)rhetorical ?-s(it is not supposed to be answered, since the only answer is implied within the boundaries of the ?-n. They are often used in the “– “ form. Have I not suffered things to be forgiven? The discrepancy b/w the form(“-“) & the essence(the statement is positive) makes the rh? very emphatic & widely used in oratorical style(style of public speaking)It is widely used in modern fiction in informal dialogues, when in distress or anger with the phrases like: what have I dne to deserve it? what shall I do when? Such forms r further stressed by exclamation alongside with interrogation marks.

The stylistic force of rh? is in the simultaneous realization of 2 syntactical m-ngs: the m-g of a ?, statement.

b)Litotes(a statement in the form of a double negation, where 2 are joined to give a “+” evaluation. E.g. not unkindly means kindly, thus the “+” effect is weakened.the str-re of L. is rigid.Besides the not there is a 2-nd element negative in form or in m-g.Sometimes L. is used to create the effect of irony, but the main its function is to make the statement less categoric.

31. SD based on parallelism.

Parallel constructions are formed by the same syntactical pattern closely following one another. Par. c-s effect the rhythmical org-n of the paragraph.It is widely used in oratorical speech. 2 types of parallelism:

a) complete(the str-re of the whole sent-ce is repeated),b)partial(some parts of the successive s-ces/clauses are repeated)

- the reversed parallel constr-n(chiasmus)(I know the world the world knows me)

The 2^nd part of ch-s – the inversion of the 1^st construction.

32. SD based on juxtaposition

a)inversion(the violationof traditional wod order which doesn’t alter the m-g of the s-ce,but gives it an addit./emotional colouring. I-n is used to single out some parts f the s-ce & heighten the emotional tension.

b)isolated members of a s-ce(detachment)(based on singling out a secondary member of the s-ce with the help of inton-n & punct-n. The word order isn’t violated,but second members obtain there own stress & inton-n as they are detached from the rest of the s-ce by: commas, dashes,full stops. I have to beg u for money. Daily. Detachment is used to give prominence to some words to help the author laconically draw the reader’s attention to a certain detail.

30. Types of syntactic repetition.

repetition-the recurrence of the same word, w.-comb-n, phrase for 2 or more times:1)anaphora(a..,a…)-when the beginning of some successive sent-ce(clauses) is repeated;styl. f-n:to create the bachground for the non repeated unit,which through its novelty becomes foregrounded;2)epiphora(…a,…a)-the last element is repeated,it adds stress to a final words in a sent-ce;3)framing(a…,…a)(ringing repet-n)-the 1^st or the last element is repeatí;it makes the whole ut-ce compact and complete,it’s most effective in singling out paragraphs & instances in a text; 4)catch rep-n(…a,a…)-rep-tionof the same word/phrase at the end of 1 clause& at the beginning of the following one;5)chain r-n(…a,a…b,b…c)-represents a series of anidiplosice;the effect is smoothly developing logical reasoning(Living is the art of loving.Loving is the art of carrying.Carying is the art of sharing.).6)ordinary r-n-has no certain place in the sent-ce,it emphesisis log. & emot. mean-gs of the repeated word or phrase, 7)successive r-n(…a,a,a…)-1 & the same element is repeated one after another;a steam of closely fol-ing each other repeated units;show the peak of emotions.(e.g. On her father’s being groundlessly suspective she felt sure,sure,sure).Stylistic f-n of r-n is to emphasize the most imp part of the ut-ce rendering emotions of the speaker.

29.Types of lexical repetitions.

There are some devices based on r-n of some idea:synonymical r-n-the rep-on of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly dif. shapes of m-g intensify the ut-ce;2 terms to show attitude to all kinds of synonymous r-n:1)pleonasm-the use of more words in the s-ce then necessary to express the m-g),2)tautology-the r-n of the same word/phrase or the same idea or statement in other words often in dif. gram.forms).