Lecture 5
The Verb
General notions. Finite and non-finite verbs
Classes of verbs. Notional and semi-notional verbs
Grammatical Categories of the verb.
(1) Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. It is caused not only by its functions in the sentence but also by its semantics.
The general categorical meaning of the verb is a process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc. rather than actions.
The processual categorical meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (the subject) and the recipient of the action (its object).
In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the function of the predicate. The non-finite verb performs different functions according to its nature (those of the syntactic subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute). In other words, the non-finite forms of the verb in self-dependent use (i.e. if they are used not as parts of the analytical verb-forms), perform a potentially predicative function, constituting secondary predicative centres of the sentence.
So, we’ve briefly analysed verb in accord with two criteria: semantic (its meaning) and syntactic (its function).
If we say a few words about its form (i.e. morphological criterion), we should mention that due to morphological features all English verbs are divided into standard (regular) and non-standard (irregular) verbs. The last are subdivided into many subgroups, for instance the verbs with vowel interchange in the stem (keep – kept, read – read); the so called unchangeable verbs (cast – cast).
We should also add a few words about specific forms of word-building displayed in the outword structure of verbs. The typical suffixes expanding the stem of the verb are: -ate; -en (broaden), -ify (clarify), -ize (normalize); typical prefixes are: en-, em- (embed), under- /over-, sub -, un-.
The composite (compound) verb stems correspond to the composite non-verb stems (blackmail). So morphological ways of producing verbs are rather productive.
The first big division in the system of verb is the division into finite and non-finite verbs or verbids or verbals.
The finite verb expresses the processual relations of substances and phenomena making up the situation reflected in the sentence. It is directly connected with the structure of the sentence as a whole (Blokh, p.123).
Verbids possess intermediate features between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, the past participle (Blokh, p.102-123).
(2) The class of finites falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features.
The first two primary subclasses are full nominative verbs and partially nominative verbs (in terminology of R.Quirk – full verbs and primary verbs, in terminology of Иванова, Бурлакова, Почепцов – знаменательные и служебные/ вспомогательные глаголы). Full nominative verbs form an open class, while partially or semi-notional verbs form the so called closed class.
Semi-notional verbs include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, link-verbs (связочные глаголы) and verbid introducer verbs. Some scholars treat modal verbs as specific class.
Link-verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate (the predicative) which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective, or a phrase of a similar semantico-grammatical character. It should be noted that link-verbs, although they are named so, are not devoid of meaning. They express the actual semantics of the “subject – predicative” connection. The verb be can be referred to as “the pure link-verb”; all the other link-verbs should be referred to as “specifying link-verbs”
The common specifying link-verbs fall into two main groups: those that express perceptions and those that express nonperceptional, or “factual” link-verb connection. The main perceptional link-verbs are seem, appear, look, feel, taste; the main factual link-verbs are become, get, grow, remain, keep.
Besides the link-verbs proper there are some notional verbs in language which perform the function of link-verbs without losing their lexical nominative value (they are mostly intransitive verbs of motion and position). Notional link-verbs form the so-called “double-predicate”, i.e. they have lexical meaning of their own, but on the other hand, they serve as a link in predicate.
e.g.: Fred lay awake all through the night.
The so-called auxiliary verbs stand very close to link-verbs, they even interrelate with each other. Thus, to be, which is treated traditionally as a “pure link-verb” can serve as auxiliary in analytical forms; the same can be said about the verb to have, which together with the verbs be, do is considered a unique verb.
Modal verbs are used with the infinitive as predictive markers expressing relational meanings of the subject attitude type, i.e. ability, obligation, permission, advisability, etc. By way of extension of meaning they also express relational probability, serving as probability predicators. These two types of functional semantics can be tested by means of correlating pure modal verb collocations with the corresponding two sets of stative collocations of equivalent functions:
The lesson is over you may go home. You are permitted to go home.
The bell may sound any minute. The bell is likely to sound any minute.
As it was stated above, auxiliary verbs, link-verbs and modal verbs form a class of partially or semi-notional verbs which, as it was justly noted by A.I. Smirnitsky, denote the relation between the object or notion and some of its features (указывают на связь предмета (явления) с каким-либо его признаком).
Now we’ll come down to the notional verbs which undergo the three main grammatical relevant categorizations:
the first is based on the relation of the subject of the verb to the process denoted by the verb.
the second is based on the aspective characteristics of the process denoted by the verb, i.e. on the inner properties of the process reflected in the verbal meaning.
the third is based on the combining power of the verb in relation to other notional words in the utterance.
On the basis of the subject-process relation, all the notional verbs can be divided into actional and statal, or stative.
Actional verbs express the action performed by the subject, i.e. they present the subject as an active doer. To this subclass belong such verbs as do, act, perform, make, go, read, learn, etc.
Statal verbs denote the state of their subject (doer). To this subclass belong be, live, survive, worry, suffer, rejoice, stand, know, etc.
The difference of statal and actional verbs is disclosed in their different aspectual behaviour: while the actional verbs take the form of continuous aspect quite freely, the statal verbs, in the same contextual conditions are mainly used in the indefinite form; their continuous forms normally express some sort of intensity or emphasis (Magazine “Англия”. – 1992. – № 2. – P. 107.).
These peculiarities will be further discussed in the process of analysis of the grammatical category of aspect which is one of the most difficult in the system of notional verb.
Notional Finite Verbs.
The finite forms of the verb express the processual relations of substances and phenomena making up the situation reflected in the sentence. These forms are associated with one another in an extremely complex and intricate (запутанный, сложный) system.
The complicated character of this system has given rise to the finite verb categories, as well as the basis of their functional semantics. It would not be an exaggeration to say that each fundamental type of grammatical expression discussed in the terms of grammatical categories of finite verbs has created a subject of a scholary dispute. Because of that, may be, the verb system became the sphere of intensive and fruitful analysis undertaken by contemporary linguists.
Theoretical discussions have not ceased; they continue and develop, bringing fresh abilities to look into the inner nature of verb. We do not try to cover all aspects of the discussion. Our aim is to demonstrate some general principles of approach to categorical spheres known from every topical description of English grammar. They include categories of person and number, tense and aspect, voice and mood, investigated by prof. Смирницкий, Хлебникова, Плоткин, Вейхман.