1. Read the text. Holding procedures

Introduction. By definition a holding procedure is ‘a predetermined manoeuvre which keeps an aircraft within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance.’ It is located to ensure that aircraft remain clear of ground and obstructions ready to continue flight when authorized to do so, either to begin an approach to land or to continue en route.

Terminology. All holding patterns have the same basic shape and the terminology associated with them is shown below.

Abeam

Inbound

Holding Fix

Outbound

Fix end

Outbound

End

Holding

Side

Non Holding

Side

Holding Fix. The holding fix may be overhead a point source navigation aid or defined as an intersection of VOR radials or VOR/DME position.

Holding Axis. The track an aircraft is required to fly inbound to the holding fix is known as the holding axis. Where the holding fix is a point source aid the axis may lie in` any direction, but where the fix is an intersection the axis must lie along one of the VOR radials defining the fix. Holding at an intersection may be towards or away from the VOR.

Turns. All turns in a standard holding pattern are made to the right, but non-standard patterns using left turns may be promulgated where operationally advantageous. Turns are made at rate 1 (3° sec) or with 25° of bank whichever requires the lesser bank. Aircraft holding at speeds in excess of 170 kts will therefore generally turn at less than 3° sec.

Length of outbound leg. Where the length of the outbound leg is specified by time it shall be 1 minute up to and including 14000' and 1¹/₂ minutes above 14000'. Timing of the outbound leg of the holding pattern begins abeam the fix or on completion of the outbound turn; whichever occurs later. Where DME is available a limiting DME distance may be specified. The outbound leg ends as soon as this distance has been reached. When holding on a VOR/DME fix a limiting radial may be specified in addition to a limiting distance when holding away from the VOR. An aircraft encountering the limiting radial should turn to fly along the radial until reaching the limiting distance then turning back to the fix as shown below.

Non conformity. If for any reason a pilot is unable to conform with any of the procedures or limitations for a particular holding pattern, he is to inform ATC as soon as possible. Deviation from the procedures may take an aircraft outside the holding area, with consequent possible loss of terrain clearance or separation.

2 Find in the text examples of sentences with modal verbs and explain their meaning. Read the review of modal verbs.

Concept	Modal Verbs
1	2
Request	1) could
	2) can
	3) would
	4) will
Offer	5) will
	6) shall
Intention	7) will
	8) be to
Obligation (strong)	9) have to
	10) must
	11) be to
1	2
Obligation (mild)	12) should
	13) ought to
	14) be to
Prohibition	15) mustn’t
	16) can’t
No obligation	17) don’t have to
Ability	18) can
	19) could
Permission	20) can
	21) may
	22) could