Scotland.

Scotland is а country that is part of the United Кingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares а border with England to the south and is bounded bу the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Осеan to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland consists of over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.

Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once оnе of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of а large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union.

Geography Scotland stretches 274 miles (440 kilometers) from South to North and 154 varies in breadth between 24 and 154 miles (248 kilometers) from east to west. The total length of coastline is estimated at 6.200 miles (10.000km). It occupies the northern part of Great Britain and is bordered on the south by England. The majority of the Scottish population lives in the north-eastern Lowlands in Aberdeen and Dundee. The other heavily populated city is Inverness, situated where the River Ness meets the Moray Firth, on the geological fault between the north-western Highlands and the Cairngorms. The country consists of a mainland area, almost two-thirds of which is mountain and moor land, and 787 islands, of which 130 are inhabited and only 62 are larger then three square miles in area. They are mostly contained in several island groups, including Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, which are divided into three regions: the Highlands in the north, the Central Lowlands, and the Southern Uplands.

26 major rivers flow directly into the sea, the main ones are: the Tay (117 miles long), the Spey (110 miles), the Clyde (106 miles), the Tweed (96 miles), the Dee (96 miles), the Don (82 miles) and the Forth (66 miles). Scotland’s highest mountains are: Ben Nevis (4406 feet), Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), Braeriach (4252 feet), Cairntoul (4241 feet), Cairngorm (4084 feet) and Ben Lawers (3984 feet). Scotland has many fine deep lakes or Lochs. Much of the west coast is intersected by sea Lochs, the longest of which, Loch Fyne, penetrates more than 40 miles inland. Major fresh-water lochs include: Loch Lomond (27 sq. miles in area, maximum depth 623 feet), Lock Ness (21.8 sq. miles, maximum depth 754 feet), is a home for the famous Loch Ness monster Loch Awe (14.8 sq. miles, maximum depth 307 feet).

History Scotland was known to the Romans as Caledonia and was inhabited by a confederation of various war-like Pictish tribes whose origin and language are unknown. The Midland Valley of Scotland represented the most northern extent of the Roman conquest of Britain after 79 A.D. Remnants of the Antonine Wall, which the Romans built between the River Forth and the River Clyde to defend this frontier, can still be seen. In the 5th Century the "Scots" migrated from their home in Ireland and founded several Kingdoms on the western coast of Scotland. Under King Robert MacAIpin in 843, they finally rose to power over the indigenous Picts and re-named the land Scotland. From around 1120, Scotland began to divide into two cultural areas - the lowland Scots, mainly English-speaking, and Gaelic speaking Highlands where the clan system in Highland Scotland was strong. Many clans were powerful and semi- independent regions and in the Western Isles, were for a long time independent of the Scottish Kings. The Lowlands adopted the feudal system after the Norman Conquest of England, with families of Norman ancestry providing most of the monarchs after 1100 AD During the Wars of Scottish Independence (1290 - 1363), when King Edward I tried to impose English rule on Scotland as he had successfully done in Wales, the people rose up against English rule, firstly, under the leadership of Sir William Wallace, who was captured by the English and brutally executed in London, and later, under that of Robert the Bruce who won a famous victory over the English at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. In 1603 King James VI inherited the throne of England from his Tudor cousin Elizabeth I, and became James I of England. In 1707 the Scottish and English Parliaments signed a Treaty of Union, which effectively transferred all powers to London. Succeeding English monarchs were not as well disposed towards Scotland as James had been. Following the formal Act of Union in 1707, displeasure particularly amongst Highland

Scots, supported the rebellions of 1715 and 1745 which attempted to restore respectively the Old and Young (Bonnie Prince Charlie) Pretenders to the throne of Scotland. After the 1745 rebellion, which was effectively a Civil War, the Highland Clearances began. Thousands were evicted from their rented crofts and the mass migration of Scots to other parts of the world began. In May 1999, almost 300 years after its dissolution, Scotland gained a new Scottish Parliament, which governs the country on domestic matters, the United Kingdom Parliament, retains responsibility for Scotland's defence, international relations and certain other areas.

Modern Scotland comprises 32 unitary authority regions. They have been in use since April 1, 1996, under the provisions of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994.

Language Almost all Scots speak English, but many speak various Scots dialects, which differ markedly from English and some speak Gaelic (pronounced Gallic).

Gaelic. About 2% of the population use Scots Gaelic as their language of every-day use, mainly in the northern and western regions of the country. Most Gaelic speakers also speak fluent English. The Gaelic Language is spoken by around 86,000 individuals primarily in the North of Scotland and in the Western Isles (e.g.. Skye, Lewis, Harris). The vast majority of Gaelic speakers are bilingual Gaelic/English. Today there are very few people who do not speak English. Gaelic (or Scottish Gaelic as it is sometimes known outside Scotland) has similarities to the other Celtic languages, and is particularly close to Irish (or Irish Gaelic) to the extent that a mutual understanding is possible.

Scots. At the time of James VI’s accession to the English throne, the Scottish Court and Parliament spoke Scots, also known as Lallans. Scots developed from the Germanic language in the Northumbrian kingdom of Bernicia, which conquered the kingdom of Gododdin and renamed its capital of Dunedin to Edinburgh, in the 6th century. The Scots language is a Germanic language related to English It is not a dialect but a language in it's own right. It is not Celtic, but has been influenced by Gaelic. The Scots language has a wide range of dialects. In Shetland and Orkney, there is strong Norse influence. Mainland Scotland has three main dialect

divisions: Northern, Central and Southern. Central is further divided into East Central (north and south of the Forth), West Central (Glasgow and surrounding area) and South-West (mainly

Dumfries and Galloway). Southern covers most of the Borders area. Scots is also spoken in Northern Ireland, the result of many crossings of the waters by populations over the centuries, in particular from the settlements of the early seventeenth century. As well as being the everyday language of an estimated 1.5 million people in Scotland, Scots is "the classical language of Scotland", and many of the historical epics written in Scots, such as The Bruce, Wallace, The Complaynt of Scotland, etc

Industry The Scottish economy comprises many different sectors. Oil was discovered off the coast and remains an important element. Light engineering and shipbuilding have seen a marked decline and the service sector (especially finance and call centres) has increased in importance. Fishing and agriculture remain important and the country's 'Silicon Glen' has also seen growth in the manufacture of computers and mobile phones. Scotch whisky production continues to have significance, as does the country's tourism industry.

Government and politics Scotland's head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, currently Queen Elizabeth II (since 1952). The title Elizabeth II caused controversy around the time of the queen's coronation, as there had never been an Elizabeth I'm Scotland. A legal case, MacCormick v. Lord Advocate (1953 SC 396), was taken to contest the right of the Queen to title herself Elizabeth II within Scotland, arguing that to do so would be a breach of Article 1 of the Treaty of Union. The case was lost and it was decided that future British monarchs would be numbered according to either their English or Scottish predecessors, whichever number is higher.

Scotland has limited self-government within the United Kingdom as well as representation in the UK Parliament. Executive and legislative powers have been devolved to, respectively, the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh. The United Kingdom Parliament retains power over a set list of areas explicitly specified in the Scotland Act 1998 as reserved matters, including, for example, levels of UK taxes, social security, defence, international relations and broadcasting, with all other matters being devolved.

The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland, as well as limited power to vary income tax, a power it has yet to exercise. The Scottish Parliament can give legislative consent over devolved matters back to Westminster by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered to be more appropriate for a certain issue. The programmes of legislation enacted by the Scottish Parliament have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the United Kingdom. For instance, the costs of a university education, and care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the UK. Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public-places.

The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature comprising 129 Members, 73 of whom represent individual constituencies and are elected on a first past the post system; 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system, serving for a four year period. The Queen appoints one Member of the Scottish Parliament, (MSP), on the nomination of the Parliament, to be First Minister. Other Ministers are also appointed by the Queen on the nomination of the Parliament and together with the First Minister they make up the Scottish Government, the executive arm of government.

Culture Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation's culture, with both traditional and modern influences. A famous traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland Bagpipe, a wind instrument consisting of three drones and a melody pipe (called the chanter), which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag. Bagpipe bands, featuring bagpipes and various types of drums, and showcasing Scottish music styles while creating new ones, have spread throughout the world. The clarsach (harp), fiddle and accordion are also traditional Scottish instruments, the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands. Today, there are many successful Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles.^[139]

Scottish literature includes text written in English, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, French, and Latin. The poet and songwriter Robert Burns wrote in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and in a "light" Scots dialect which is more accessible to a wider audience. Similarly, the writings of Sir Walter Scott and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle were internationally successful during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries.^[140] J. M. Barrie introduced the movement known as the "Kailyard school" at the end of the 19th century, which brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion.^[141] This tradition has been viewed as a major stumbling block for Scottish literature, as it focused on an idealised, pastoral picture of Scottish culture.^[141] Some modern novelists, such as Irvine Welsh (of Trainspotting fame), write in a distinctly Scottish English that reflects the harsher realities of contemporary life.'¹⁴²¹ More recently, author J.K. Rowling has become one of the most popular authors in the world (and one of the wealthiest) through her Harry Potter series, which she began writing from a coffee-shop in Edinburgh.

The national broadcaster is BBC Scotland (BBC Alba in Gaelic), a constituent part of the British Broadcasting Corporation, the publicly funded broadcaster of the United Kingdom. It runs two national television stations and the national radio stations, BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Radio nan Gaidheal, amongst others. The main Scottish commercial television station is STV. National newspapers such as the Daily Record, The Herald, and The Scotsman are all produced in Scotland.^[143] Important regional dailies include The Courier in Dundee in the east, and The Press and Journal serving Aberdeen and the north.^[143]

Sport Sport is an important element in Scottish culture, with the country hosting many of its own national sporting competitions. It enjoys independent representation at many international sporting events including the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby Union World Cup, the Rugby League World Cup, the Cricket World Cup and the Commonwealth Games, but it is not represented at the Olympic Games. Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the Scottish Football Association (the second oldest national football association in the world)^[144] and the Scottish Rugby Union. Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries with the earliest reference dating back to 1424.^[145] Association football is now the national sport and the Scottish Cup is the world's oldest national trophy.^[146] Scotland (and England) fielded the first international football team. Scottish clubs have been successful in European competitions with Celtic winning the European Cup in 1967, Rangers and Aberdeen winning the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1972 and 1983 respectively, and Aberdeen also winning the UEFA Super Cup in 1983. The Fife town of St. Andrews is known internationally as the Home of Gol^[147] and to many golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage.'¹⁴⁸¹ There are many other famous golf courses in Scotland, including Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield and Royal Troon. Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games, curling and shinty. Scotland played host to the Commonwealth Games in 1970 and 1986, and will do so again in 2014.

Today — Certain differences between England and Scotland remain to this day, particularly in the legal and education systems.

Although Scotland takes up one third of the territory of the British Isles, its population is not very big. It is the most northern part of the island of Great Britian and is not very far away from the Arctic Circle. That's why it is not densely populated: its population is a little over 5 million people.

The Cheviot Hills mark the boundary between England and Scotland. Apart from this land link with England, Scotland is surrounded by sea. Scotland includes the Hebrides off the west coast, and the Orkey and Shetland Islands off the north coast. It is bounded by the North Sea in the east.

Scotland is divided into three regions: the Highlands, which is the most northern and the most underpopulated area with a harsh climate; the Lowlands, which is the most industrial region, with about three quarters of the population; and the Southern Uplands, with hills, which border on England.

The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. They reach their highest point in Ben Nevis (1,343 m). Many valleys between the hills are filled with lakes, called lochs. The best-known is Loch Ness, where, as some people think, a large monster lives. The most important city here is Aberdeen which is the oil centre of Scotland. Ships and helicopters travel from Aberdeen to the North Sea oil rigs. Work on an oil rig is difficult and dangerous.

Most of the population of Scotland is concentrated in the Lowlands. Here, on the Clyde, is Glasgow, Scotland's biggest city. Shipbuilding is one of its most important industries, other industries are iron and steel, heavy and light engineering, and coal mining. It's an industrial city and an important port in the UK. It's a grim city because of the greyness of its houses many of which are not suitable for living and need repairs and rebuilding. Glasgo is also the home of two well-known football clubs, Glasgo Rangers and Celtic.

Clans and Tartans One of the things that people associate with Scotland is the kilt. The kilt is a relic of the time when the clan system existed in the Highlands. The Gaelic word "clan" means "family" or "descendants" and the great clans of the 16th and 17th centuries were indeed very similar to enormous families, ruled by powerful chiefs. Sometimes there were fierce battles between different clans but nowadays the McDonalds and McKenzies, the Campbells and the Lindsays all live in peace with each other. It is possible to find people with these surnames in many English- speaking countries, and they all feel they share the same background.

The wearing of tartans or coloured checks was common in the Highlands before the defeat by the English in 1745. Originally, the tartan was worn as a single piece of cloth, drawn in at the waist and thrown over the shoulder. The kilt did not become popular until the beginning of the 18th century. Each clan has its own tartan, and, since the first international gathering of the clans in 1972, many people have become interested in traditional forms of Scottish dress. Tartans are now part of international fashion.

Many people in Scotland have the name McDonald or McKenzie. "Mc" means son of" and people with this name usually feel they belong to the same family or clan. Campbell or Cameron are other common surnames. Common boys' names are Angus, Donald or Duncan, and girls' names are Morag, Fiona or Jean. The names Jimmy and Jock are so common that many English people call a man from Scottland "a Jimmy" or "a Jock".

The Highland Games The games which are now celebrated in the Highlands first started in Celtic times and were always held in front of the king. Competitions were held to find the strongest and fastest men to be body-guards and messengers. Essential to the modern games are the events such as putting the stone, throwing the hammer, and tossing the caber. Other events include running and jumping, as well as competitions for playing the bagpipes and dancing traditional Highland dances.

The games held in the northeast are best known for the athletic events, whilst the best piping is traditionally found in the Highlands and Islands off the west coast.

Edinburgh Edinburgh has been the capital since the 15th century, when its fortified castle was the centre of Scotland's resistance to its enemies. Edinburgh is an administrative, commercial and cultural centre of Scotland. It is associated with the names of Geogre Gordon Byron, Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns, and Arthur Conan Doyle. It is also associated with the world-famous Edinburgh Festival of Music and Drama. The Festival was first held in 1947 and has been held annually ever since. Its aim is bringing to Scotland's capital the finest performers and productions from all over the world. The Edinburgh International Festival of 1987 was devoted to Russia, the Russian musicians, dancers and singers were a great success.

At the same time as the festival, the Edinburgh military tatoo takes place every August and September, and is known throughout the world. For 90 minutes on five or six nights a week, 600 people perform under floodlights. They are surrounded on three sides by an audience of 9,000. On the fourth side is the castle itself which provides an exciting setting for the evening's performance of military music, marching and other spectacular displays. On the final night of the display the sky is filled with the bright colours of exploding fireworks.

WALES (Welsh: Cymru; pronounced 'Kumree') is situated on a peninsula of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Bristol Channel to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west and north. Population: 2,903,085.

Geography The land area is just over 8,000 square miles and Wales measures 160 miles long by 60 miles wide. Wales has extensive tracts of high plateaux with mountain ranges deeply dissected by river valleys radiating from the centre of the upland area. The lowland area is confined mainly to the relatively narrow coastal belts and the valley floors. Snowdon is the highest mountain at 3,650 feet. The coastline is almost 750 miles long (1,200 Km.) there are several islands off the north and west coasts, with Anglesey being the largest.

History The British Celts were forced westwards under sustained invasions from

Romans, Vikings and Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo Saxon English kings never ruled Wales, and at the Norman invasion Wales was a collection of small kingdoms. It took the Normans over 200 years to control the whole of Wales. The last major Welsh uprising was by Owain Glyndwr between 1400 and 1408. The need for labour in the south Wales coalfields brought an influx of English into this area, which brought about an erosion of the Welsh language, though Welsh continued to be spoken extensively in North Wales. Today the mining of Welsh coal has all but disappeared, but the language continues to be spoken reasonably widely as a second language. Wales has been governed from London via the Welsh Office, under a cabinet minister. Following the referendum on limited devolution in 1997, the Welsh were seen to be virtually equally spilt on the subject, with the more rural "Welsh" areas being for devolution, and the more industrial areas being against it. Like the other three nations of the UK, it does not issue its own currency, it now has its own national government, but it is not in control of any armed forces, Language. The language of Wales, more properly called Cymraeg, belongs to a branch of Celtic, a language that has been spoken in Europe for over 4,000 years and which was once the dominant language of Europe, from the British Isle in the North to the Middle East in the south. The Welsh themselves are descendants of the Galatians, to whom Paul wrote his famous letter. Their language is a distant cousin to Irish and Scots Gaelic and a close brother to Breton. Welsh is still used by about half a million people within Wales and possibly another few hundred thousand in England and other areas overseas. Although English is the every day language for most Welsh people, nearly 20% of the population still speak Welsh, mainly in the north and the teaching of welsh in schools has steadied the decline of the language to some extent.

Industry The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, including the capital, Cardiff, and the other two major cities, Swansea and Newport. Wales is a land of small farms. Sheep farming is predominant in the mountains and moor lands, dairy and mixed farming around the coast. The old heavy industries that once made the port of Cardiff (the capital city) the busiest in the world have declined to such an extent that even coal mining has almost ceased in Wales. British governments have attracted English and multi-national companies to Wales with generous incentives but unemployment is still higher than the average for Britain. However, so this may change as recent years have seen a strong growth in the science and technology sectors. Tourism has become a major growth industry in the north, west and south west.

Political Wales (Welsh: Cymai; pronounced 'Kumree' approximate pronunciation) is one of the four major nations comprising the United Kingdom (UK). Wales has had no real independence since 1282 when it was conquered by the English King Edward I. Like the other three nations of the UK, it does not issue its own currency, it now has its own national government, but it is not in control of any armed forces. Wales is divided into 22 unitary authorities. There are 9 counties, 3 cities, and 10 county boroughs, although all have equal status. They came into being on April 1, 1996

Government and politics The head of state in Wales, a constituent part of the United Kingdom, is the British monarch Queen Elizabeth II, (since 1952). Executive power is vested in the Queen, and exercised by Her Majesty's Government at Westminster, with some powers devolved to the Welsh Assembly Government in Cardiff. The United Kingdom Parliament retains responsibility for passing primary legislation in Wales, but since the Government of Wales Act 2006 came into effect in 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can request powers to pass primary legislation as Assembly Measures on specific issues. The National Assembly is not a sovereign authority, and the UK Parliament could, in theory, overrule or even abolish it at any time.

The National Assembly was first established in 1998 under the Government of Wales Act. There are 60 members of the Assembly, known as "Assembly Members (AM)". Forty of the AMs are elected under the First Past the Post system, with the other 20 elected via the Additional Member System via regional lists in 5 different regions. The largest party elects the First Minister of Wales, who acts as the head of government. The Welsh Assembly Government is the executive arm, and the Assembly has delegated most of its powers to the Assembly Government. The new Assembly Building designed by Lord Rogers was opened by The Queen on St David's Day (1 March) 2006.

Music The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the National Eisteddfod. This takes place annually in a different town or city. The Llangollen International Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform. Wales is often referred to as "the land of song, being particularly famous for harpists, male voice choirs, and solo artists including Sir Geraint Evans, Dame Gwyneth Jones, Dame Anne Evans, Dame Margaret Price, Ivor Novello, John Cale, Sir Tom Jones, Charlotte Church, Bonnie Tyler, Bryn Terfel, Donna Lewis, Mary Hopkin, Katherine Jenkins, Meic Stevens, Dame Shirley Bassey, Duffy and Aled Jones.

The Welsh traditional and folk music scene is in resurgence with performers and bands such as Crasdant, Carreg Lafar, Fernhill, Sian James, Robin Huw Bowen, Llio Rhydderch, KilBride and The Hennessys. Traditional music and dance in Wales is supported by a myriad of societies. Welsh Folk Song Society (Cymdeithas Alawon Gwerin Cymru) has published a number of collections of songs and tunes. The Welsh Folk Dance Society (Cymdeithas Ddawns Werin Cymru) supports a network of national amateur dance teams and publishes support material. Clear (Traditional instruments society) runs workshops to promote the harp, telyn deires (triple harp), fiddle, crwth, pibgorn (hornpipe) and other instruments. The Cerdd Dant Society promotes its specific singing art primarily through an annual one-day festival. The traditional music development agency, trac, runs projects in communities throughout Wales and advocates on behalf of traditional music. There are also societies for Welsh hymnology, oral history, small eisteddfodau, oral history, and poetry.

Culture Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language, customs, holidays and music. Wales is primarily represented by the symbol of the red Welsh Dragon, but other national emblems include the leek arid daffodil. The Welsh words for leeks (cennin) and daffodils (cennin Pedr, lit. "(Saint) Peter's Leeks") are closely related and it is likely that one of the symbols came to be used due to a misunderstanding for the other one, though it is less clear which came first. In June 2008, Wales made history by becoming the first nation in the world to be awarded Fairtrade Status.

Sport The most popular sports in Wales are rugby union and football. Wales, like other constituent nations, enjoys independent representation in major world sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup, Rugby World Cup and in the Commonwealth Games (however as Great Britain in the Olympics). As in New Zealand, rugby is a core part of the national identity, although football has traditionally been more popular sport in the North Wales, possibly due to its close proximity to England's north-west. Wales has its own governing bodies in rugby, the Welsh Rugby Union and in football, the Football Association of Wales (the third oldest in the world) and most other sports. Many of Wales's top athletes, sportsmen and sportswomen train at the Welsh Institute of Sport and National Indoor Athletics Centre in Cardiff, the Wales National Velodrome in Newport and the Wales National Pool in Swansea.

The Welsh national rugby union team takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship. Wales has also competed in every Rugby World Cup, hosting the tournament in 1999, with a best result of third place in the inaugural competition. Welsh teams also play in the European Heineken Cup and Magners League (rugby union) alongside teams from Ireland and Scotland, the EDF Energy Cup and the European Heineken Cup. The traditional club sides, were replaced in major competitions with four regional sides in 2003 replaced by the four professional regions (Scarlets, Cardiff Blues, Newport Gwent Dragons and Ospreys) in 2004. The former club sides now operate as semi-professional clubs in their own league, linked to the four regional sides. Wales has produced ten members of the International Rugby Hall of Fame including Gareth Edwards, J.P.R. Williams and Gerald Davies. Newport Rugby Club achieved a historic win over the 'invincible' New Zealand rugby team of 1963, while Llanelli Rugby Club famously beat the All Blacks in October 1972.

Wales has had its own football league since 1992 although, for historical reasons, two Welsh clubs (Cardiff City, and Swansea City) play in the English Football League and another four Welsh clubs in its feeder leagues. (Wrexham, Newport County, Merthyr Tydfil, and Colwyn Bay).

Rugby league is now developing in Wales. The Wales national rugby league team was formed in 1907, making them the third oldest national side. Before 1975 and in the 1980s they have been represented by the Great Britain national rugby league team in the World Cup. They have however competed in the 1975, 1995 and 2000 competitions. In the latter two they reached the Semi-Finals. But they didn't qualify for the 2008 tournament, having failed to beat Scotland over two matches. Bridgend based Celtic Crusaders joined National League Two in 2006, were promoted to National League One in 2008, and will play in Super League in 2009. The Crusaders Colts, also based in Bridgend, play in the Rugby League Conference National division. Eight teams compete in the Rugby League Conference Welsh Premier division, which began in 2003. The most successful teams have been the Bridgend Blue Bulls and Cardiff Demons.

In international cricket, England and Wales field a single representative team which is administered by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB). There is a separate Wales team that occasionally participates in limited-overs domestic competition. Glamorgan County Cricket Club is the only Welsh participant in the England and Wales County Championship. A Wales team also plays in the English Minor Counties competition. However there has been recent debate as to whether Welsh players (such as Simon Jones) should play for an England team, and not an England and Wales team.

Wales has produced several world class snooker players such as Ray Reardon, Terry Griffiths, Mark Williams, Matthew Stevens and Ryan Day. Amateur participation in the sport is very high. The rugged terrain of the country also gives opportunities for rally driving and Wales hosts the finale of the World Rally Championship. Glamorgan compete in county cricket competitions and the Cardiff Devils were once a strong force in British ice hockey. Wales has also produced a number of athletes who have made a mark on the world stage, including the 110 m hurdler Colin Jackson who is a former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic, World and European medals as well as Tanni Grey-Thompson who has won Paralympic gold medals and Marathon victories.

Two Welsh drivers have competed in the Formula One championship: the first was Alan Rees at the 1967 British Grand Prix, who finished in ninth position, four laps behind the winner, Jim Clark. Tom Pryce was the more notable of the two drivers, as he finished on the podium twice and, at the 1975 British Grand Prix, qualified in pole position. Pryce's career was cut short after he collided with volunteer marshal, Jansen Van Vuuren, killing both instantly. As well as Formula One, Wales have had some notability in the World Rally Championship, producing two championship winning Co-Drivers, those being Nicky Grist, who helped Colin McRae to victory in 1995 and Phil Mills who helped Petter Solberg win the 2003 title. Vales hosts the British and final leg of the World Rally Championship.

Since 2006, Wales has had its own professional golf tour, the Dragon Tour. Notable Welsh golfers include Brian Huggett, Ian Woosnam, Bradley Dredge and Phillip Price. The Celtic Manor in Newport will host the 2010 Ryder Cup.

Media Cardiff is home to the Welsh national media. BBC Wales is based in Llandaff, Cardiff and produces Welsh-oriented output for BBC One and BBC Two channels. BBC 2W is the Welsh digital version of BBC Two, and broadcasts between 8.30pm and 10pm each week night for specific Wales based programming. ITV the UK's main commercial broadcaster has a Welsh-oriented service branded as ITV Wales, whose studios are in Culverhouse Cross, Cardiff. S4C, based in Llanishen, Cardiff, broadcasts mostly Welsh-language programming at peak hours, but shares English-language content with Channel 4 at other times. S4C Digidol (S4C Digital), on the other hand, broadcasts mostly in Welsh. Channel 4 and Channel 5 are now available in most parts of the country via digital television and satellite.

BBC Radio Wales is Wales's only national English-language radio station, while BBC Radio Cymru broadcasts throughout Wales in Welsh. There are also a number of independent radio stations across Wales including Red Dragon FM, The Wave, Swansea Sound, Marcher Sound, Nation Radio, Coast FM, 102.5 Radio Pembrokeshire, 97.1 Radio Carmarthenshire, Champion 103, Radio Ceredigion and Real Radio (Wales).

Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales are national newspapers sold and read throughout Britain, unlike in Scotland where many newspapers have rebranded into Scottish based titles. Wales-based newspapers include: South Wales Echo, South Wales Argus, South Wales Evening Post, Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh edition) and Y Cymro, a Welsh language publication. The Western Mail is the main indigenous daily newspaper in South Wales and includes a Sunday edition Wales on Sunday. Both are published by the UK's largest newspaper corporation, Trinity Mirror. The Western Mail and South Wales Echo have their offices in Thomson House, Cardiff city centre.

The Welsh call their country Cymru, and they call themselves Cymry. The population of Wales is almost three million people. About 75 per cent of the people of Wales live in towns and urban districts. The living standards of people in Wales are lower than in England, the unemployment rate is higher. South Wales has many traditions of struggle for more jobs and better-working conditions in mines. Wales is a highland country of old, hard rock. North Wales is a country of mountains and deep valleys, South Wales is a land of high hills and wide valleys. The pride of Wales in scenery is Snowdonia, the region of high mountains. Snowdon (1,085 m) is the highest mountain in England and Wales. Except for coal, mineral resources are limited and include gold, silver, and copper. South Wales is more developed; during the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, the valleys of South Wales became the iron and steel capital of the world. Nowadays, coal-mining, steel production, electronics, electical engineering and chemicals can be found here. The capital of Wales is Cardiff, the largest city of Wales. Cardiff is situated near the mouth of the Taff River. It's an important industrial city and port, and administrative and educational centre.

Cardiff has been the official capital of Wales since 1955. There has been a community here for hundreds of years, but it began to grow quickly and to become prosperous during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This was the period when the coal, iron and steel industries were developing in South Wales, and Cardiff became a major industrial town and an important port. However, when these industries began to decline, Cardiff suffered too. Today, the docks are much smaller, but the city is now expanding as a commercial and administrative centre. It is an attractive and intersting place to live in, with good communications, plenty of parks and a varied population which includes nearly 10,000 university and college students.

As a tourist, you might want to visit the castle and Llandaff cathedral, or the National Museum of Wales. If you like music, there is the famous national concert hall, St. David's Hall, or the New Theatre, which is the home of the Welsh National Opera Company.

The second largest city is Swansea where mainly steel production can be found. Since World War II there has been intensive development in the metal industries especially in the south and southeast.

Although not many Welsh words are well-known in England, the word "eisteddfod" is understood by almost everybody. The 800-year-old National Eisteddfod is certainly the most picturesque and most moving ceremony in Wales. Here the love of song and poetry of the Welsh is organized to make a spectacle unique in the world. Presided over by white-robed druids with their attendant blue- robed bards, the Eisteddfod calls upon the people of Wales each year to send forth its singers and poets to participate in this colourful tournament. The most important event is the choosing of a winning poet, and so great is the nationwide interst in this ceremony that special newspaper editions are read by those who, unable to go to the Eisteddfod, follow it with the interest that in England is shown to dog races and football matches.

The Welsh people, especially in rural areas, are fond of folk music, poetry and drama. There are many choirs in Wales, the standard of singing is very high. And the Welsh sing at Eisteddfod for days.

The National Eisteddfod, as a festival of Welsh culture, is held annually at some place in South Wales (even years) and North Wales (uneven years).

The Welsh National Game Rugby Union is a national game of Wales, and during the 1970s the Welsh team was thought to be the best in the world. The rules of the game are rather complicated but mainly involve the carrying of an egg-shaped ball over your opponents' line and pressing it firmly on the ground to score a try. A team consists of fifteen players, eight of whom are usually much bigger and heavier than the rest. Although the game seems to be similar to American football, the players are not allowed to throw the ball forward.

When the Welsh side are playing at home at Cardiff Arms Park their supporters often try to encourage them to play better by singing the Welsh National anthem, Land of My Fathers. The sound of thousands of Welsh voices singing this famous song usually helps the Welsh side score another try to win the game. Naturally they are especially pleased when this is against the English.

What's in a Name? The way in which British surnames have developed is very complicated. Before the Normans arrived, the use of surnames wasn't really known. Many English surnames were originally connected with a person's job — Charles Baker, Margaret Thatcher; someone's size — Jack Long, Mary Little; or a family relationship — Robin Williamson (Robin, son of William), Peter Richardson.

The most common Welsh names were all originally Christian names in some form: Dylan Thomas, Roger Davies (a form of David), Geoffrey Jones (from John), David Williams, etc. Many other names come from the tradition of calling a child "son of' his father using the Welsh word ap (or ab). This "p" can be found at the beginning of many common Welsh names, eg Gary Pritchard, which is the same as English Richardson. Other examples are Prees, Price, Parry, and Pugh.

Welshmen living in England are often called by the nickname "Taffy". This may come from the River Taff, which runs through the capital Cardiff, or it may come from Dafydd, the Welsh form of David.