1. Anglo-Saxon literature. Genre variety of Anglo-Saxon literature. Style and language peculiarities.

Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses literature written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English) during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of Britain, from the mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research.

Some of the most important works from this period include the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of early English history. The poem Cædmon's Hymn from the 7th century is one of the oldest surviving written texts in English.

Anglo-Saxon literature has gone through different periods of research—in the 19th and early 20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic roots of English, later the literary merits were examined, and today the interest is with paleography questions and the physical manuscripts themselves such as dating, place of origin, authorship, and looking at the connections between Anglo-Saxon culture and the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages.

2. Anglo-Saxon literature. “Beowulf”, its plot and composition, the peculiarities of the language. Anglo-Saxon verse, alliteration. Beowulf as the national hero. Type of Work

.......Beowulf is an epic(An epic is a poetical narrative of heroic achievements.)

a long poem telling a story about a hero and his exploits. It is further classified as a folk epic in that it pieces together its story from folk tales transmitted orally for centuries, probably sometimes to the accompaniment of a musical instrument such as a harp. Beowulf consists of  3,182 lines .Beowulf was written Old English in the West Saxon dialect of 1000 A.D. Old English was used in England between 600 and 1100 A.D. Beowulf is believed to be the first important literary work of medieval Europe to be written in the language of the common man rather than in the lofty elegance of Latin. 

Among the more famous epics of the world's literature may be noted: Homer's Iliad and Odyssey; Virgil'sAEneid; the German Nibelungenlied; the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf; the French Song of Roland; Dante's Divina Commedia; Tasso's Gierusalemme Liberata; Ariosto's Orlando Furioso; Milton's Paradise Lost; Spenser's Fairy Queen; Camoens' Lusiads (Portuguese); and Firdusi's Shah Nameh (Persian). Hesiod'sTheogony; the poetic Edda; the Finnish Kalewala; the Indian Mahabharata may be described as collections of epic legends. The historical epic has an excellent representative in Barbour's Bruce; and specimens of the mock-heroic and humorous epic are found in The Battle of the Frogs and Mice; Reynard the Fox; Butler's Hudibras; and Pope's Rape of the Lock.

An Old English poem such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliterative verse, a form of verse that uses alliteration as the principal structuring device to unify lines of poetry, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme, a tool which is used rather infrequently. This is a technique in which the first half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the second half (the b-verse) through similarity in initial sound. Beowulf is written in unrhyming verse, without stanzas, with a caesura (pause) in the middle of each line. The lines contain caesuras to represent the pauses that speakers normally use in everyday speech. Thus, each line is divided into two parts. Each part is called a hemistich (HEM e stick), which is half a line of verse. A complete line is called a stich. Each hemistich contains two stressed (accented) syllables and a varying number of unstressed (unaccented) syllables.  

Main Characters

Beowulf: Illustrious warrior from the land of the Geats in Sweden. When a monster terrorizes a Danish kingdom, Beowulf sails across the sea to come to the aid of the beleaguered Danes. Beowulf possesses enormous strength and courageously confronts the monster in hand-to-claw combat. According to Webster's New World Dictionary, Beowulf may mean bee-hunter (Beo for bee and wulf for hunter). A bear, of course, hunts bees and, therefore, Beowulftranslates loosely as bear.  Hrothgar: King of a Danish realm terrorized by a monster. He presides at Heorot, a great mead hall. Heorot  Wealhtheow: Hrothgar's wife and queen.  Grendel: Monster that terrorizes Heorot.   Grendel's Mother: Monster that retaliates after Beowulf defeats Grendel.  Dragon: Monster that goes on a rampage in the land of the Geats.  Wiglaf: Warrior who helps Beowulf fight the dragon.   Hygelac: King of the Geats in Sweden. He is Beowulf's uncle.  Hygd: Hygelac's wife and queen.  Heardred: Son of Hygelac.  Ecgtheow: Beowulf's father.  Unferth: Danish warrior who envies Beowulf.  Breca: Childhood friend of Beowulf.  Aeschere: Counselor to Hrothgar.  Freawaru: daughter of Hrothgar and Wealhtheow   Scyld Scefing: Onetime King of Denmark and great-grandfather of Hrothgar. He is mentioned in the epic but does not take part in the action.   

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3. English literature of the Middle Ages and genre variety. English ballads. The peculiarities of the genre. Ballads of Robin Hood. Robin Hood and the national idea of justice.

The ballads were composed in the XII-XIV centuries and written down in the XV-XVII centuries.  Now you hear the music of Medieval English ballad performed with the Medieval musical instruments.(music files)

Characteristics of a ballad are:

 A ballad tells a story.n   A ballad focuses on actions and dialoguen rather than characteristics and narration.   A ballad has a simple metricaln structure and sentence structure.   A ballad is sung to a modal melody.n   A ballad is of oral tradition, passed down by word of mouth. Therefore, itn undergoes changes and is of anonymous authorship.

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Robin Hood is a legendary hero of English folklore. In the old tales, Robin Hood is an expert archer and good-hearted outlaw who lives in England's Sherwood Forest and "robs from the rich and gives to the poor." He loves Maid Marian, leads a band known as the Merry Men (which includes Friar Tuck and the oversized Little John) and torments the evil Sheriff of Nottingham. Robin appears in Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe and many other books, stories and movies. Most Robin Hood stories are set in the era of 1100 - 1300 A.D., and in many he is a defender of the real-life King Richard the Lion-Hearted and enemy of the usurper, King John. Much like King Arthur, Robin is a fictional figure who may have been loosely based on a real person or persons.

4. English literature of the Middle Ages and genre variety. English legends about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The main characters and plots. King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table The famous story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round table is well known. King Arthur is the figure at the heart of the Arthurian legends but the Knights of the Round Table play an important part in the story and legend of King Arthur. The Arthurian legend revolves around the Code of Chivalry followed by King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The basis for the code of Chivalry followed by King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were Honour, Honesty, Valour and Loyalty. King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were ' Brothers in Arms'. The Round Table was therefore built to ensure that all the Knights of the Round Table were deemed equal and each of the seats at the Round Table were highly favoured places.

The medieval tale of Arthur and his knights is full of Christian themes; those themes involve the destruction of human plans for virtue by the moral failures of their characters, and the quest for an important Christian relic. Finally, the relationships between the characters invited treatment in the tradition of courtly love, such as Lancelot andGuinevere, or Tristan and Iseult. In more recent years, the trend has been to attempt to link the tales of King Arthur and his knights with Celtic mythology, usually in highly romanticized, early twentieth century reconstructed versions.

Additionally, it is possible to read the Arthurian literature in general, and that concerned with the Grail tradition in particular, as an allegory of human development and spiritual growth (a theme explored by Joseph Campbell amongst others).

Arthur was the first born son of King Uther and heir to the throne. Because of the troubled times, Merlin, a wise magician, advised that the little Arthur should be raised some-where secret and that no one should know his true identity.

After the death of King Uther, there was a big conflict over the throne. Merlin used his magic to set a sword in a stone. On the sword, there was written: "Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone is the rightwise born king of all England." Of course all the knights took their turn at trying to pull out the sword, but no one could succeed. Arthur, quite by chance, withdrew the sword for another to use in a tournament. People didn’t believe, but when the sword was set back in the stone and he pulled it out once more, he became the king.

Excalibur was often attributed with magical powers and associated with the rightful sovereignty of Great Britain.

He gathered Knights around him and fought back the Saxons who, since the Romans left Britain, were slowly but surely taking over the country. After many great battles and a huge victory at Mount Badon the Saxons were defeated.

Arthur's castle was called Camelot. His knights met at the Round Table. They carried out acts of chivalry such as rescuing ladies and fought against strange monsters and also took part in search for the Holy Grail. The most well-known knight is sir Lancelot. He is typically considered to be one of the greatest and most trusted of King Arthur's knights and plays a part in many of the king’s victories. He is perhaps most famous for being intimate with Arthur's wife Guinevere and the role he plays in the search for the Holy Grail.

King Arthur’s beautiful wife,Queen Guinevere, was as famous as the king himself and added a romantic side to the story. His equally beautiful half sister Morgan le Fay added a dark side and his son Mordred was Arthur’s biggest enemy. Civil War broke out after a time of peace and in the battle of Camlann, both Arthur and Mordred were deadly wounded. The King’s body was placed on a boat and it sailed to the isle of Avalon, where three maidens cured his wounds. According to the legend, Arthur and his knights rest there under a hill, waiting for the country to need their help again.

The first reliable reference to Arthur dates back to the year 830 (AD) and is called the 'Historia Brittonum' written by the Welsh monk Nennius. Only difference is, that he refers to Arthur as a warrior, not a king.

 

Arthurian Characters

Guinevere - Arthur's wayward wife Merlin - King Arthur's magician Ambrosius Aurelianus - Some say he's Arthur Joseph of Arimathea - Biblical character in England? Uther Pendragon - Arthur's legendary father Ygerna - Arthur's legendary mother Nimue - The Lady of the Lake Vortigern - Sponsor of the Saxons

Aspects of the Arthurian Legend

Camelot - King Arthur's Magnificent Court. Excalibur - Arthur's famous sword. The Holy Grail - The most mystical of objects. King Arthur's Knights - King Arthur's Chivalric Order.

5. The genre variety of “The Canterbury Tales” by G. Chaucer and the ideas of humanism.

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). The tales, some of which are originals and others not, are contained inside a frame tale and told by a group of pilgrims on their way from Southwark to Canterbury, England (where a tourist attraction entitled The Canterbury Tales may nowadays be viewed) to visit Saint Thomas à Becket's shrine at the cathedral there (later destroyed by Henry VIII ).

The themes of the tales vary, and include topics such as courtly love, treachery and avarice. The genres also vary, and include romance, Breton lai, sermon, and fabliau. The characters, introduced in the Prologue of the book, tell tales of extreme cultural relevance.

The Tales include:

• The Knight's Tale

• The Miller's Prologue and Tale

• The Reeve's Prologue and Tale

• The Cook's Prologue and Tale

• The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale

• The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale

• The Friar's Prologue and Tale

• The Summoner's Prologue and Tale

• The Clerk's Prologue and Tale

• The Merchant's Prologue and Tale

• The Squire's Prologue and Tale

• The Franklin's Prologue and Tale

• The Physician's Tale

• The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale

• The Shipman's Tale

• The Prioress' Prologue and Tale

• Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas

• The Tale of Melibee

• The Monk's Tale

• The Nun's Priest's Tale

• The Second Nun's Prologue and Tale

• The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale

• The Manciple's Prologue and Tale

• The Parson's Prologue and Tale

• Chaucer's Retraction

Some of the tales are serious and others are humorous; however, all are very precise in describing the traits and faults of human nature. Religious malpractice is a major theme. Another important element of the tales is their focus on the division of the three estates. The work is incomplete, as it was originally intended that each character would tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the return journey.

Perhaps the greatest contribution that this work has made to English literature is in its use of vulgar (i.e. 'of the people') English, instead of using French or Latin, which were usually used for literary works. The structure of Canterbury Tales is also easy to find in other contemporary works, such as Boccaccio's Decameron, which may have been one of Chaucer's main sources of inspiration.

The title of the work has become an everyday phrase in the language and has been variously adapted and adopted, eg. in the title of the British film, A Canterbury Tale. Recently an animated version of some of the tales has been produced for British television. As well as a version with Modern English dialogue, there were versions in Middle English and Welsh.

6. The epoch of Renaissance. The representatives of English Renaissance. Th. More. The general characteristics of W. Shakespeare’s works. W. Shakespeare’s sonnets. The sonnet as a literary form and a genre. (всё в тетради)

7. W. Shakespeare’s tragedies (“Othello”, “Hamlet”, “Romeo and Juliet”). The basic themes and plots; the philosophic message of the tragedies. Characteristics of a Shakespearean Tragedy

Most of the tragedies written by Shakespeare are revenge and ambition tragedies. For instance, Othello, Hamlet, King Lear and Macbeth are the dark tragedies showing revenge and ambition. However, there is an exception to this in the form of a romantic tragedy, rather the only romantic tragedy written by Shakespeare and that is Romeo and Juliet. Unlike the revenge/ambition tragedy, there are two tragic characters in Romeo and Juliet. Romeo becomes impulsive and acts without thinking about the consequences which brings in the separation and ultimately the death of the two lovers. Coming back to the revenge/ambition tragedies, there are some noticeable features which are dealt with in the following part.

Tragic/Fatal Flaw

O farewell, Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trump, The spirit-stirring drum, th’ ear-piercing fife; The royal banner, and all quality, Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war! And O you mortal engines, whose rude throats Th’ immortal Jove’s dread clamors counterfeit, Farewell! Othello’s occupation’s gone. – Othello

A ‘tragic flaw’, by definition, is a personality trait that leads to the downfall of the protagonist. It can also be a wrong action performed by the protagonist that results in his own ruin. It is the most important element in the tragedy and almost every hero/heroine of a Shakespearean tragedy possesses a tragic flaw. Examples of tragic flaw in Shakespearean tragedy are: Macbeth’s obsession with power, Othello’s jealousy and Hamlet’s indecisiveness.

Supernatural Elements

By the pricking of my thumbs, Something wicked this way comes. [Knocking] Open locks, Whoever knocks! – Macbeth

Use of super-natural elements is a common characteristic of the Elizabethan drama, to which Shakespeare’s plays are no exception. The supernatural powers contribute to the fate of the protagonist. However, they are not solely responsible for the downfall of the hero, it still lies in the deeds/actions of the hero. Usually, these actions are the outcome of the protagonist’s over-ambitious nature (as in Macbeth where he wants to become the king) or the feeling of revenge. Furthermore, they are not the illusions in the mind of the hero because they contribute to the action of the play with their presence in more than one or two scenes. The effective use of witches in Shakespeare’s plays reflects the old society beliefs in the evil powers who practice evil rites to affect the central character(s). For instance, in Macbeth, when Macbeth encounters the three witches, he starts believing whatever they say without any doubt in mind of their existence. This is what the old society belief in the evil spirits reflected in Shakespeare’s tragedy.

Internal and External Conflict

I’ th’ last night’s storm I such a fellow saw, Which made me think a man a worm. My son Came then into my mind, and yet my mind Was then scarce friends with him. I have heard more since. As flies to wanton boys are we to th’ gods, They kill us for their sport. – King Lear

The external conflict, as we can easily make out, is the conflict between two people, the tragic hero and other main character of the story. It can also be the conflict between two parties one out of which is led by the tragic hero. The result of the external conflict is always in favor of the other party as it is the good side. When talking about the inward struggle of the hero, it is the struggle of the thoughts in his mind. The result of this struggle many a time is insane behavior of the hero (as in King Lear, the king becomes mentally ill). The inward struggle also includes the action of spiritual forces which work against the hero.

Fate/Fortune

How now, my lord, why do you keep alone, Of sorriest fancies your companions making, Using those thoughts which should indeed have died With them they think on? Things without all remedy Should be without regard: what’s done, is done. – Macbeth

As the tragic hero/heroine is of high estate and is a public figure, his/her downfall produces a contrast which affects not only his/her personal life, but the fate and welfare of the entire nation or the empire. It reflects the powerlessness of human beings and the omnipotence of fate that a personal story of a peasant or a worker cannot produce. The adverse effects of fate on the empire are evident in Macbeth, when Duncan’s sons Malcolm and Macduff are planning to defeat Macbeth and at the same time trying to support the collapsing kingdom. Macduff suggests that Malcolm take the throne, but Malcolm is not mature enough to hold the falling empire.

The Theme of Foul and Revenge

I have no spur To prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself, And falls on th’other. . . . – Macbeth

As it is a tragedy, foul has to counterfeit fair; an unwritten rule of a Shakespearean tragedy. In fact, “fair is foul and foul is fair” is the refrain of the play. The entire play revolves around the only theme of foul turning fair. The very first line of the first scene of the play spoken by the three witches shows the intensity of the theme. Similarly, in Hamlet, revenge is the theme built cleverly right from the beginning of the play and making it the driving force behind the character of Hamlet.

Paradox of Life

Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. – Macbeth

Shakespeare’s tragedies reflect the paradox of life, in the sense that the calamity and suffering experienced by the tragic hero are contrasted with the previous happiness and glory. This paradox is very clear in the play Macbeth. Initially, Macbeth is portrayed as the most brave and loyal soldier of the nation and is rewarded by king Duncan for his bravery and love for the nation. However, Macbeth is not satisfied with whatever he gets and desires for more. This desire or over-ambitious nature leads him to think evil and act on it which is an extreme end of his real personality.

Catharsis

Any piece of literature, or any art form for that matter, is successful when it evokes pity, fear, and other such emotions in the audience. It is known as catharsis, where the audience feels sympathy for the character and empathizes his/her sufferings. If the play has the capacity to move the audience by its plot, the people who are reading the play or watching it in the theater can identify themselves with the characters and feel that they have similar experiences in their life.

Tragic Structure

A tragic story (Shakespearean) can be divided into four parts and they are as follows:

1. Exposition: Exposition is the initial part where the reader/audience gets to know the characters and their traits, the general setting of the story, the major conflict in the story and most importantly, the tragic flaw of the hero. Normally, exposition begins and ends in the first act itself, however, sometimes, there are some characters who enter late into the story.

2. Rising Action: Rising action develops through the second act and extends up to the third and the fourth act. This is the time when the plot gathers momentum and the action increases. The plot eventually reaches the crises where the hero makes a decision that changes the course of the play, sealing his own fate. For example, Macbeth kills Duncan in act II whereas Lear’s foolish decision to divide the kingdom occurs in act I. This is how the location of the crisis differs from play to play. By the end of the rising action, the hero is left alone for the rest of the story.

3. Falling Action: From the beginning of the fourth act, the opposite forces become active and start an open resist. They also start planning for the removal of the tragic hero as a result of which the power of the tragic hero starts declining.

4. Resolution: In the last and final act, the opposite forces reach the full power and defeat the isolated tragic hero. This is the time when the hero recognizes his faults, yet, cannot do anything about it.

Shakespeare wrote 10 tragedies in all namely, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, Hamlet, Julius Caesar, King Lear, Macbeth, Othello, Romeo and Juliet, Timon of Athens and Titus Andronicus out of which the four dark tragedies Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and King Lear are the most admired ones.

6. W. Shakespeare’s comedies. The analysis of any comedy. (“The Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “The Taming of the Shrew”, “Much Ado About Nothing”). W. Shakespeare’s historical plays.(в тетради)

7. English literature of 17 century. The Cavalier and Metaphysical poets. J. Donne, G. Herbert, A. Marwell; the main ideas of their poetry. An important group of 17th-century writers were the metaphysical poets. Metaphysical poetry makes use of conceits—that is, of farfetched similes and metaphors intended to startle the reader into an awareness of the relationships among things ordinarily not associated.

John Donne was the greatest of the metaphysical poets. His chief subject was love as it perfects humankind. He never treated the subject profanely. He was occasionally earthy, but only because he recognized that humans are creatures who must love in a natural way. His poem The Extasy is a celebration of sacramental love. His prose is as rich as his poetry, but nothing can match the mastery of such poetry as his Hymne to God My God, in My Sicknesse. (See also Donne, John.)

George Herbert, like Donne, was both a metaphysical poet and an Anglican priest. Some of Herbert's most effective poetry deals with humankind's thirst for God and with God's abounding love. Herbert's collection, The Temple (1633), was published posthumously (he probably did not intend his poetry to be published). Andrew Marvell, Richard Crashaw, and Henry Vaughan were other metaphysical poets of merit. Most easily understood, perhaps, is Marvell, at least in the well-loved lyric To His Coy Mistress. (See also Crashaw, Richard; Herbert, George; Marvell, Andrew.) John Donne (pronounced like done, IPA: /ˈdʌn/; 1572 – March 31, 1631) was a Jacobeanpoet and preacher, representative of the metaphysical poets of the period. His works, notable for their realistic and sensual style, include sonnets, love poetry, religious poems,Latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and immediacy of metaphor, compared with that of his contemporaries.

The Cavalier poets were followers and supporters of Charles I. They wrote with a sense of elegance and in a style that emphasized wit and charm and the delicate play of words and ideas. Chief among the Cavalier group were Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and Robert Herrick. Herrick was a clergyman in the Church of England, but his ministerial duties did not prevent him from admiring a pretty face or the loveliness of the English landscape. His poems deal with familiar subjects.

6. English literature of 17 century. J. Milton’s poem “Paradise Lost”, the plot, the portrayal of Satan, the concept of God and man.

7. The literature of the Restoration period. W. Wyrcherley, W. Congreve.

8. English literature of 17 century. J. Dryden, the founder of classicism. The general characteristics of his works.

9. The early period of Enlightenment. ‘The Augustan Age’. The poetry of A. Pope. “The Rape of the Lock”.

10. English literature of the Enlightenment. D. Defoe’s novel “Robinson Crusoe” or in J. Swift’s novel “Gulliver’s Travels”, the satirical skill of the author.

11. English literature of the Enlightenment. S. Richardson and the peculiarities of the epistolary genre in the novel “Clarissa”./ H. Fielding “The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling” and the comic representation of human nature.

12. The peculiarities of English drama of the 18^th century. R. Sheridan “School for Scandal”.

17. Pre-romanticism and its main features. The Gothic novel. W. Godwin. The depiction of gentry in the novels of J. Austen. The poetry of R. Burns. (“Highland Mary”, “Mary Morrison”, “Tom O’Shanter”) History

One can trace elements of the Gothic novel in earlier novels such as Ferdinand Count Fathom by Tobias Smollett, published in 1753; but the first full-fledged Gothic novel was The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole, which appeared in 1764. Set in the thirteenth century, this tale involves princes, a castle, murder and a ghost, and purported - a common Gothic convention - to be a translation from an Italian original. The novel quickly created a new fashion in novel-writing, in which a large element consisted on playing on the emotions of the reader. Gothic fiction is thus a part of the wider movement of romanticism in literature and the arts, and of the reaction of the more measured "classical" style which had dominated literature in the first half of the eighteenth century.

Other writers jumped on the Gothic bandwagon, and Gothic novels stayed very popular well into the nineteenth century. Jane Austen made affectionate fun of them inNorthanger Abbey, as did Thomas Love Peacock in Nightmare Abbey. Among the key writers in the genre was Ann Radcliffe. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and the tales of Edgar Allan Poe incorporate many Gothic elements, as does much of the popular fiction - including many of the so-called "penny dreadfuls" - of the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century the Titus Trilogy of Mervyn Peake is a major example of Gothic fiction.

Gothic literature influenced more mainstream writers, including Lord Byron and John Keats (especially in Isabella). The ghost story and the horror novel are direct descendants of the genre.

Characteristics of the Gothic novel

All Gothic novels introduce an element of terror, suspense and mystery. They generally incorporate many of the following:

• cliff-hanger chapter endings

• supernatural elements such as ghosts, magicians, werewolves, monsters and devils

• a medieval setting, often with a castle, dungeons, ruins, or a monastery

• mad characters

• merciless, flamboyant villains

• persecuted damsels

• curses which pass down the generations

• dark secrets

• the Inquisition

William Godwin (3 March 1756 – 7 April 1836) was an English journalist, political philosopher and novelist. He is considered one of the first exponents of utilitarianism, and the first modern proponent of anarchism.^[1] Godwin is most famous for two books that he published within the space of a year: An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, an attack on political institutions, and Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams, which attacks aristocratic privilege, but also is the first mystery novel. His first published work was an anonymous Life of Lord Chatham (1783). He published under his own name Sketches of History (1784), consisting of six sermons on the characters ofAaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates the proposition "God Himself has no right to be a tyrant." Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the New Annual Register and other periodicals, producing also three novels now forgotten. His main contributions for the "Annual Register" were theSketches of English History he wrote annually, which were yearly summaries of domestic and foreign political affairs. He joined a club called the "Revolutionists," and associated much with Lord Stanhope, Horne Tooke and Holcroft. In 1793, while the French Revolution was in full swing, Godwin published his great work on political science, Enquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness.

Major works

• Enquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness (1793)

• Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794)

• The Enquirer (1797)

• Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798)

• St. Leon (1799)

• Fleetwood (1805)

• Mandeville (1817)

• History of the Commonwealth (1824–28)

• Cloudesley: A Tale (1830)

• Thoughts on Man, his Nature, Productions, and Discoveries, Interspersed with some particulars respecting the author (1831)

• Deloraine (1833)

• Lives of the Necromancers

• Georgian society in Jane Austen's novels is the ever-present background of her work, the world in which all her characters are set. Entirely situated during the reign of George III, the novels of Jane Austen describe their everyday lives, their joys and sorrows, as well as their loves, and provide in the process an irreplaceable insight into the period.

• Jane Austen's novels deal with such varied subjects as the historical context, the social hierarchies of the time, the role and status of the clergy, gender roles, marriage, or the pastimes of well-off families. Without even the reader noticing, many details are broached, whether of daily life, of forgotten legal aspects, or of surprising customs, thus bringing life and authenticity to the English society of this period.

• Nevertheless, the point of view from which Jane Austen describes England is that of a woman of the English gentry (albeit from its lower fringes), belonging to a reasonably well-off family, well connected and remarkably well educated for the time, and living in a very small village of rural England around the late 1790s or early 19th century. Thus, some essential aspects of the Georgian era are virtually absent from her novelvons, such as the American Revolutionary War and the loss of the Thirteen Colonies, the French Revolution, the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and the birth of the British Empire. Indeed, rather than a depiction of the history of English society at large, Jane Austen's novels provide an understanding of everyday life in rural England at the turn of the 19th century. Jane Austen’s novels are set in the social context of the gentry, to which Jane Austen herself belonged. Some of her heroines have no fortune (Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park), others on the other hand are very well off (Emma), but the social class remains the same.

Robert Burns (25 January 1759 – 21 July 1796) (also known as Rabbie Burns, Scotland's favourite son, the Ploughman Poet, Robden of Solway Firth, the Bard of Ayrshire and in Scotland as simply The Bard)^[1][2] was a Scottish poet and a lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland, and is celebrated worldwide. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and a "light" Scots dialect, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland. He also wrote in standard English, and in these his political or civil commentary is often at its most blunt. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) Auld Lang Syne is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and Scots Wha Hae served for a long time as an unofficialnational anthem of the country. Other poems and songs of Burns that remain well-known across the world today include A Red, Red Rose; A Man's A Man for A' That; To a Louse; To a Mouse; The Battle of Sherramuir; Tam o' Shanter, and Ae Fond Kiss. All of R. Burn's poetry shows him to be one of great masters of lyrical

verse, warm patriot of his native country. He had always stood for liberty,

equality, justice and honesty. His poetry is deeply democratic and full of

criticism directed against the landlords, the government officials.

18. Sentimentalism. T. Gray, O. Goldsmith, L. Stern. The ideas of sentimentalism in their works (“An Elegy Written in the Country Church Yard”, “The Vicar of Wakefield”, “A Sentimental Journey Through France to Italy”. According to the sentimentalists, the dominant chord of human nature is feeling, and not reason, which is compromised by bourgeois practices. Sentimentalism did not break completely with the Enlightment. In sentimental literature of the Enlightenment the hero is more individualized, and his inner world is enriched by his ability to empathize and to respond sensitively to what is going on around him. The rich inner world of the common man was one of the chief discoveries and triumphs of sentimentalism. S Sentimental motifs (the natural idyll and melancholy contemplation, for example) first appeared in the poetry of J. Thomson ( The Seasons , 1730), E. Young ( Night Thoughts , 1742–45), and T. Gray ( Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard , 1751). A concrete social reflection of the village theme is found only in the poetry of the late sentimentalists of the 1770's and 1780's, such as O. Goldsmith, W. Cowper, and G. Crabbe, who allude to the impoverishment of the peasant masses and to deserted villages. Sentimental motifs are found in the psychological novels of S. Richardson and the later works of H. Fielding ( Amelia , 1752). However, sentimentalism attained its ultimate form in the works of L. Sterne, whose unfinished Sentimental Journey (1768) gave the sentimentalist movement its name. A

“An Elegy Written in the Country Church Yard”, The poem is not a conventional part of Theocritus 's elegiac tradition, because it does not mourn an individual. The poem lacks many standard features of the elegy: an invocation, mourners, flowers, and shepherds. The theme does not emphasise loss as do other elegies, and its natural setting is not a primary component of its theme.the

The Vicar of Wakefield is a novel by Irish author Oliver Goldsmith. It was written in 1761 and 1762, and published in 1766, and was one of the most popular and widely read 18th-century novels among Victorians. The novel is mentioned in George Eliot's Middlemarch, Jane Austen's Emma, Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities and David Copperfield, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Sarah Grand's The Heavenly Twins, Charlotte Brontë's The Professor and Villette, Louisa May Alcott's Little Women and in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, as well as hisDichtung und Wahrheit. Literature

A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy is a novel by the Irish-born English author Laurence Sterne, written and firstpublished in 1768, as Sterne was facing death. In 1765, Sterne travelled through France and Italy as far south as Naples, and after returning determined to describe his travels from a sentimental point of view. The novel can be seen as an epilogue to the possiblyunfinished work The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, and also as an answer to Tobias Smollett's decidedly unsentimental Travels through France and Italy. (Sterne met Smollett during his travels in Europe, and strongly objected to his spleen, acerbity and quarrelsomeness. He modeled the character of Smelfungus on him.)

The novel was extremely popular and influential and helped establish travel writing as the dominant genre of the second half of the 18th century. Unlike prior travel accounts which stressed classical learning and objective non-personal points of view, A Sentimental Journeyemphasized the subjective discussions of personal taste and sentiments, of manners and morals over classical learning. Throughout the 1770s female travel writers began publishing significant numbers of sentimental travel accounts. Sentiment also became a favorite style among those expressing non-mainstream views including political radicalism.

The narrator is the Reverend Mr. Yorick, who is slyly represented to guileless readers as Sterne's barely disguised alter ego. The book recounts his various adventures, usually of the amorous type, in a series of self-contained episodes. The book is less eccentric and more elegant in style than Tristram Shandy and was better received by contemporary critics. It was published on February 27, and on March 18 Sterne died. the late 18th century that emerged as a reaction against the of the Enlightenment rationalism and the traditions

18. Romanticism. The founder of English Romanticism – W. Blake. (“London”/“Saw a Chapel”/ “The Garden of Love”) Blake, William (b. Nov. 28, 1757, London--d. Aug. 12, 1827, London)  English poet, painter, engraver; one of the earliest and greatest figures of Romanticism. Many of Blake's best poems are found in two collections: Songs of Innocence (1789) to which was added, in 1794, the Songs of Experience (unlike the earlier work, never published on its own). The complete 1794 collection was called Songs of Innocence and Experience Shewing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul. Broadly speaking the collections look at human nature and society in optimistic and pessimistic terms, respectively - and Blake thinks that you need both sides to see the whole truth.

19. Romanticism. “The Lake poets”. W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge. The Lake Poets are a group of English poets who all lived in the Lake District of England at the turn of the nineteenth century. the Lake Poets, a small group of friends including William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. These early Romantic Poets brought a new emotionalism and introspection, William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with the 1798 joint publication Lyrical Ballads. In 1807, his Poems in Two Volumes were published, including " Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood ". Up to this point Wordsworth was known publicly only for Lyrical Ballads , and he hoped this collection would cement his reputation.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (  /ˈkoʊlrɪdʒ/; 21 October 1772 – 25 July 1834) was an English poet, Romantic, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He is probably best known for his poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan, as well as for his major prose work Biographia Literaria. His critical work, especially on Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. He coined many familiar words and phrases, including the celebrated suspension of disbelief. He was a major influence, via Emerson, on American transcendentalism.

18. Romanticism. G. G. Byron “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”

Childe Harold's Pilgrimage is a lengthy narrative poem in four parts written by Lord Byron. It was published between 1812 and 1818 and is dedicated to "Ianthe". The poem describes the travels and reflections of a world-weary young man who, disillusioned with a life of pleasure and revelry, looks for distraction in foreign lands. In a wider sense, it is an expression of the melancholy and disillusionment felt by a generation weary of the wars of the post-Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. The title comes from the term childe, a medieval title for a young man who was a candidate for knighthood. The work provided the first example of the Byronic hero.^[5] The idea of the Byronic hero is one that consists of many different characteristics. The hero must have a rather high level of intelligence and perception as well as be able to easily adapt to new situations and use cunning to his own gain. It is clear from this description that this hero is well-educated and by extension is rather sophisticated in his style. Aside from the obvious charm and attractiveness that this automatically creates, he struggles with his integrity, being prone to mood swings or bipolar tendencies. Generally, the hero has a disrespect for any figure of authority, thus creating the image of the Byronic hero as an exile or an outcast. The hero also has a tendency to be arrogant and cynical, indulging in self-destructive behaviour which leads to the need to seduce women. Although his sexual attraction through being mysterious is rather helpful, this sexual attraction often gets the hero into trouble. The character of the Byronic hero has appeared in novels, films and plays ever since.

18. Romanticism. W. Scott’s historical novels “Ivanhoe”, “Rob Roy”.

Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832) Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)

The name of Sir Walter Scott is closely connected with the genre of the historical novel. It was he who introduced it into English Literature, because he was interested in the ro­mantic aspects of Scottish history. Walter Scott expanded the range of the novel as a literary form. His histor­ical novels changed attitudes towards the past, he made the world aware of Scotland, his novels struck the reader with their epic quality.

Walter Scott was born on 15th of August, 1771 into the family of a well-known Edinburgh lawyer. His mother Anne Rutherford was the eldest daughter at a professor of medicine of Edinburgh University. Both parents were descended from old Border families. Therefore, Walter Scott acquired an interest in the history and legends of the Borders. When a child, he spent much time with his grandparents at their farm in the Borders.

At the age of seven Walter Scott entered the High School of Edinburgh. He spent there five years.

In 1783 he proceeded to Edinburgh University. His father wanted him to study law. But Walter Scott's profound interest in history and passionate love for his country changed the course of his life. He was greatly interested in the folklore of Scotland; he collected legends and popular ballads of the Highlands and Border Country, filling his mind with romantic tradition. The works of the German romantics, Schiller and Goethe, attracted him. He possessed a great knowledge of romantic literature. Though personally friendly to the Lakists (William Wordsworth was his life-long friend), he never shared their literary tastes.

His early reputation was as a narrative poet. In 1802-1803 Walter Scott published a collection of Scottish legends under the title of "The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border”.

In hunting for balla­ds he also hit upon the goblin story out of which he developed his first verse-tale of Border chivalry, “The Lay of the Last Minstrel”(1805).

Waiter Scott's tales portrayed vivid image of the chivalry of feudal times, well-drawn pictures of Border and Highland scenery. The great success of the collection encouraged Scott to make literature his main pursuit in life. The following literary ballad comes from “The Heart of Midlothian". It is called "Maisie". It is the death song of a mad peasant woman:

Proud Maisie is in the wod,

Walking so early;

Sweet Robin sits on the bush,

Singing so rarely.

“Tell me, thou bonny bird,

When shall I marry me?" —

“When six braw gentlemen

Kirkward shall carry ye."

"Who makes the bridal bed,

Birdie, say truly?” —

“The grey-headed sexton,

That delves the grave duty”.

The glow-worm o'er grave and stone

Shall light thee steady;

The owl from the steeple sing,

"Welcome, proud lady".

In 1808 Walter Scott published "Marmion":

—    Such dusky grandeur clothed the height,

Where the huge castle holds its state,

And all the steep slope down,

Whose ridgy back heaves to the sky,

Piled deep and massy, close and high,

Mine own romantic town.

In 1810 Walter Scott published the most powerful poem, “The Lady of the Lake”:

—    The summer dawn's reflected hue,

To purple changed Loch Katrine blue,

Mildly and soft the western breeze,

Just kissed the Lake, just stirr'd the trees.

Loch Katrine is situated not far from Edinburgh. There is the steamship "Sir Walter Scott" named after the great poet who wrote "The Lady of the Lake". It makes 8 miles cruise from the narrow inlet at Trossachs Pier to the Loch's southwestern shore, Royal Cottage and Glengyle House at the northern head of the Loch — the birthplace of Rob Roy MacGregor.

Sir Walter Scott combined the life of a poet and country gentlemen with that of a principal clerk of the Court of Session (the Supreme Civil Court of Scotland). Edinburgh was a vital part of Scott's being and his books were published there. Up to 1814 Scott wrote poems on historical and legendary subjects and became famous as a poet. Meanwhile, he purchased a farm­house on the banks of the Tweed.

During 1814-1832 he began to write novel after novel. "Waverley", his first historical novel was pub­lished in 1814. It was the beginning. It was a success, and from then to the end of his life Walter Scott devoted himself only to prose. Every year he produced a novel. But he concealed his authorship until 1827, because he was Sheriff of Selkirk. But the success of the "Scotch Novels” was great and brought him a large income. Walter Scott managed to create a new genre — a historical novel by blending historical fact with roman­tic fancy. With his growing fame as a writer Walter Scott was made a baronet in 1820.

The historical events that attracted his attention were those closely connected with the relations be­tween Scotland and England, the struggle for Scottish independence. For many centuries England, that was much more economically developed than its northern neighbour, had oppressed Scotland and the freedom-loving Scots. The author described the 17th-18th cen­turies of the Scottish history. Among his most famous novels are "Rob Roy” (1818). "The Bride of Lammerтооr” (1819). He chose for his heroes the common people of Scotland.

Later Walter Scott extended his background also to England. He wrote several historical novels about Eng­land; the periods he chose there were the end of the 16th century (the Elizabethan Age) and the middle of the 17th century (the Bourgeois Revolution and the Restoration of Monarchy). Among those novels were: "Ivanhoe" (1820), "The Monastery” (1820), "The Abbot" (1820), "Quentin Durward” (1823).

England and Scotland were closely connected with each other in their historical development. Thus in "The Abbot” Walter Scott de­scribed one of the epi­sodes of the tragic life of Mary, Queen of Scots.

"Quentin Durward" was written on a different subject. Walter Scott por­trayed the King of France as one of the most cunning politicians of his time.

Among the outstanding historical novels "Ivanhoe" was one of the best.

George Byron, a great admirer of Scott's talent, said that "he (Walter Scott) was a library in himself”. Like Walter Scott, Byron had an exact feeling of the historical development. Unlike Walter Scott, Byron didn't share the Lake poets' disapproval of revolutionary methods.

But it was Walter Scott, the first writer of a new genre of the historical novel who depicted Scotland as a mysteriously romantic country full of adventure.

There are many places of interest connected with the name of Sir Walter Scott all over Scotland. Scott Monument in Edinburgh is one of the famous land­marks with a 287 step climb to the top.

In 1832 an architectural competition for an appropri­ate memorial to Sir Walter Scott was launched.

As a result the design by George Meikle Kemp had won.

In 1840 the construction of the monument to Walter Scott began in Princes Street Gardens.

In 1846 the monument was built. Sinсе then millions of tourists have climbed the 200 foot structure to ad­mire the views of Edinburgh and the statues of Walter Scott's characters which decorate the monument.

Scott Monument in Edinburgh attracts tourists greatly. Not far from the monument there is Sir Walter Scott's Tea Room, a cosy place where you can enjoy the view of Edinburgh castle just from the window of the Tea Room while enjoying the waitress service tearoom with authentic Scottish cooking. The festival Menu includes such delicious Festival Fancies as Haggis and Oatcakes, Salmon Pate Piper's Pie (chicken and mushroom), Juggler’s Lunch (ploughman's lunch) or Soup of the day (with a crusty roll) and Bread and Butter Pudding.

Sir Walter Scott's Tea Room invites the visitors:

Festival fancies