1.2. Word Combination: Definition

Within the domain of syntax two levels should be distinguished: that of phrases and that of sentences.

The phrase can generally be defined as a combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of speech. A word-combination can also be defined as a compound nominative unit of speech which is semantically global and articulated.

The difference between a phrase and a sentence is a fundamental one. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes while a sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence.

Grammar has to study the aspects of phrases which spring from the grammatical peculiarities of the words making up the phrase, and of the syntactical functions of the phrase as a whole, while lexicology has to deal with the lexical meaning of the words and their semantic groupings. For example from the grammatical point of view the two phrases read letters and invite friends are identical (the same pattern verb + noun indicating the object of the action).

Phrases can be divided according to their function in the sentence into:

(1) those which perform the function of one or more parts of the sentence (predicate, or predicate and object, or predicate and adverbial modifier, etc.)

(2) those which do not perform any such function but whose function is equivalent to that of a preposition, or conjunction, and which are equivalents of those parts of speech.

1.3. Syntagmatic Connections of Words.

Words in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one another:

1. syntagmatic groupings of notional words alone,

Such groups (notional phrases) have self-dependent nominative destination, they denote complex phenomena and their properties (semi-predicative combinations): a sudden trembling; a soul in pain; hurrying along the stream; strangely familiar; so sure of their aims.

2. syntagmatic groupings of notional words with functional words,

Such combinations (formative phrases) are equivalent to separate words by their nominative function: with difficulty; must finish; but a moment; and Jimmy; too cold; so unexpectedly. They are contextually dependent (synsemantism).

3. syntagmatic groupings of functional words alone.

They are analogous to separate functional words and are used as connectors and specifiers of notional elements: from out of; up to; so that; such as; must be able; don't let's.

Combinations of notional words fall into two mutually opposite types:

1) combinations of words related to one another on an equal rank (equipotent combinations)

2) combinations of words which are syntactically unequal (dominational combinations)

Equipotent connection is realised with the help of conjunctions (syndetically), or without the help of conjunctions (asyndetically): prose and poetry; came and went; on the beach or in the water; quick but not careless; — no sun, no moon; playing, chatting, laughing; silent, immovable, gloomy; Mary's, not John's.

The constituents of such combinations form coordinative consecutive connections.

Alongside of these, there exist equipotent connections of a non-consecutive type. In such combinations a sequential element is unequal to the foregoing element in its character of nomination connections is classed as (cumulative connections): agreed, but reluctantly; satisfied, or nearly so.

Dominational connection is effected in such a way that one of the constituents of the combination is principal (dominating/headword) and the other is subordinate (dominated/adjunct, adjunct-word, expansion).

Dominational connection can be both consecutive and cumulative: a careful observer; an observer, seemingly careful; definitely out of the point; out of the point, definitely; will be helpful in any case will be helpful; at least, in some cases.

The two basic types of dominational connection are:

1. bilateral (reciprocal, two-way) domination (in predicative connection of words);

2. monolateral (one-way) domination (in completive connection of words).

The predicative connection of words, uniting the subject and the predicate, builds up the basis of the sentence. The nature of this connections is reciprocal (the subject dominates the predicate and vice versa).

Such word combinations are divided into:

1. complete predicative combinations (the subject + the finite verb-predicate);

2. incomplete predicative/semi-predicative/potentially-predicative combinations (a non-finite verbal form + a substantive element): for the pupil to understand his mistake; the pupil’s understanding his mistake; the pupil understanding his mistake.

Monolateral domination is considered as subordinative since the syntactic status of the whole combination is determined by the head-word: a nervous wreck. astonishingly beautiful.

The completive connections fall into two main divisions:

1. objective connections

2. qualifying connections.

Objective connections reflect the relation of the object to the process. By their form these connections are subdivided into:

1. non-prepositional;

2. prepositional.

From the semantico-syntactic point of view they are classed as:

1. direct (the immediate transition of the action to the object);

2. indirect or oblique (the indirect relation of the object to the process).

Direct objective connections are non-prepositional, the preposition serving as an intermediary of combining words by its functional nature. Indirect objective connections may be both prepositional and non-prepositional.

Further subdivision of objective connections is realised on the basis of subcategorising the elements of objective combinations, and first of all the verbs; thus, we recognise objects of immediate action, of perception, of speaking, etc.

Qualifying completive connections are divided into

1. attributive (an enormous appetite; an emerald ring; a woman of strong character, the case for the prosecution);

They unite a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective or a noun.

2. adverbial:

   1. primary (the verb + its adverbial modifiers): to talk glibly, to come nowhere; to receive (a letter) with surprise; to throw (one's arms) round a person's neck; etc

   2. secondary (the non-verbal headword expressing a quality + its adverbial modifiers): marvellously becoming; very much at ease; strikingly alike; no longer oppressive; unpleasantly querulous; etc.

Completive noun combinations are directly related to whole sentences (predicative combinations of words): The arrival of the train → The train arrived. The baked potatoes → The potatoes are baked. The gifted pupil → The pupil has a gift.

Completive combinations of adjectives and adverbs (adjective-phrases and adverb-phrases) are indirectly related to predicative constructions: utterly neglected — utter neglect — The neglect is utter; very carefully — great carefulness — The carefulness is great; speechlessly reproachful — speechless reproach — The reproach is speechless.