14.Stages of test construction.

Any test should start with a set of specifications: information on format, content, timing, criterial levels of performance, scoring procedures and addresses. To demonstrate ‘mastery’, 80% of tasks should be done correctly. With integral tasks testors consider accuracy, appropriacy, range, flexibility and size. The test tasks should be checked out by native speakers or colleagues; they should be able to do 100%! In general, the more important the decisions on the test, the longer it shoud be. With creative tasks, do not give tasks that are too vague: e.g. ‘Write a composition on tourism’ is too broad; better: “Write how tourism might help to develop the economy of your native town’.

As to the content, tasks should be inambiguous; clear and explicit instructions should be provided. Candidates should be familiar with the formate and testing techniques. Identify candidated by number, not name. They should not be allowed to come in late or distribute the materials.

To present unambiguous keys is an absolute must for every test-designer!

5.Testing speech competencies.

a) Testing writing: the operations are: describe, explain, compare, contrast, argue; give samples of. As to the conduct of scoring, a search should be made to identify ‘benchmark’ scripts which typify key levels of ability on each writing task (See ‘Teaching writing’).

b) Testing oral ability: an alternative to interview, in which the candidate speaks to a superior and is unwilling to take the initiative is: a) interaction with peers; b) response to tape-recordings. Advice to conducting such interviews: make them as long as it is feasible; plan it carefully ( a list of questions, statements to ask an opinion of, description of performance levels). Give the candidate as many ‘fresh starts’ as possible; within a format there should be as many separate items as possible. A possible suggestion is imitation – candidates hear a series of sentences , which they have to repeat in turn. Provided that the sentences are not too short, learners will make the same kind of errors performing this task as they will do when speaking freely. Techniques not recommended:prepared monologue and reading out loud.

c) Testing reading: by some methodologists considered the most difficult thing – when people read, there is nothing to observe. What should be opted for is concrete macroskills: ~ scanning a text to locate specific information; ~ skimming a text to obtain the gist; ~identifying stages of argument; ~identifying referents or pronouns, etc. Texts should be authentic and of appropriate length: for scanning – passages up to 2000 words or more; detailed reading can be tested with the help of passages that are just a few sentences long. The same principle of ‘fresh starts’ is observed – for scanning look for texts that contain many descrete pieces of information. Avoid texts which may be part of candidates’ general knowledge. Test techniques to be recommended are: guided short answers, summary cloze, information transfer (filling in tables, following a route on the map, labelling a picture, etc); identifying referents, guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words from context.

d) Testing grammar: the backwash effect of tests which measure mastery of skills directly may be preferable to that of tests which might encourage the learning of grammatical structures in isolation suitable for placement tests. Extensive use of multiple choice tasks should be avoided; preference should be given to periphrasis, comletion and modified cloze. As to scoring, a candidate should not be penalized for missing third person singular when the item is testing relative pronouns, for instance.

e) Testing vocabulary: the most common procedures are recognition, identifying synonyms, definitions, gap filling and multiple choice, matching words and pictures. (See ‘Teaching Vocabulary).

(Candling) curricula are concerned with making general statements about lang learning purp and exper-ce, evaluation, the role relat-ps of teachers and learners(TL). Syllabuses are more localized. They are based on accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as TL apply ? given curriculum to their own situation. Syll design is concerned essentially with the selection and grading of content, while methodology - with learning tasks and activities.

Van EK names the following syll. components: 1) The situation for FL (use, incl. topics.) 2) Lang. activities in which the L will be engaged. 3) The lang. functions which the L will fulfill. 4) What the L will be able to do with respect to each topic. 5) The general notions (e.g. causality) which the L will be able to handle. 6) The specific (topics-related notions) 7) Lang. forms 8) The degree of skill with which the L will be able to perform.

The movement is strongly towards ESP - so the focus is not ?n1? on the lang. functions, but on experiential content (that is, subject matter through which the lang. is taught).

Needs analysis springs up from the possible conflict of students as to ? teaching program.

For ? syll. designer, Munby thinks, it is necessary to develop and collect info. on 9 components (the most detailed analysis) 1. Participant (age, sex, nationality, mother tongue, command of target lang., other lang-s) 2. Purpose; 3.Setting (the environ. in which the target lang. will be employed) 4.Interaction (with what people) 5 Instrumentality (medium- spoken\written, receptive/productive, the mode, the channel\face-to-face or indirect.) 6. Dialect 7. Target level- the degree of mastery 8. Communicative event (productive\receptive skills) 9. Communicative key (interpersonal attitudes and tones.) Difficulty at the level of discourse, unfamiliar uses.

Types of Syllab.:

product oriented are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners will gain as ? result of instruction; process oriented are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves. (Wilkins) ? synthetic teaching strategy to one in which the different parts of language are taught separately and step by step so that acquisition is ? process of gradual accumulation of parts. Analytic syll. are organized in terms of the purposes for which people are learning lang. and kinds of lang. performance necessary to meet these purposes L are presented with chunks of lang., Grammatical syll. are built on the assumption that lang-s consist of ? finite set of rules, that can be learnt one by one, in an additive fashion. Functional-national syll. Purposes are at the center of curriculum: benefits: l. sets realistic learning task 2. provides real-world lang. 3 leads to emphasize receptive activities before rushing students to performance. 4. allows to exploit psycholing., socioling., ling. and educat-l principles. 5. allows ? spiral curriculum to be used which reintroduces material. 6 Courses are more flexible and modular.

What should any syll. begin with? Expectations. The purpose of the Expectations section of the syllabus is to tell students what they can expect the class to be like and to provide them with a clear understanding of their role in your classroom.

Psychology and its reflection in syllabus design: In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a taxonomy of intellectual behavior important in learning. This taxonomy has three overlapping domains: Psychomotor (involves skills that require the use and coordination of skeletal muscles.) Affective (relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values. Objectives relate to behaviors which are indications of a student's attitude, appreciation, or value.) Cognitive (involves the acquisition and use of knowledge and is predominant in the majority of courses.). Hi identified Six levels within the cognitive domain:

Level 1: Knowledge Objectives at this level emphasize simple regurgitation of facts, the knowledge of processes of dealing with facts, or with a student's awareness of criteria, methods, and processes (used verbs in objectives – define, recognize, reproduce, name, identify)

Level 2: Comprehension Objectives focus on a student's ability to translate or paraphrase a communication from one form to another or to derive the essential meanings of a communication (Verbs: interpret, translate, discuss)

Level 3: Application Objectives focus on a student's ability to apply what they have learned. Students must use the information they know (Verbs: apply, demonstrate, operate, use).

Level 4: Analysis Objectives focus on a student's ability to diagnose material, situations. Students separate the material, situation, or environment into its component parts and focus on the relationships among these parts to each other and to the total structural organization. Verbs: analyze, categorize, compare.

Level 5: Synthesis Objectives focus on a student's ability to organize the information they have acquired at the lower levels of learning and produce results. Synthesis requires a student to put together information, often in a new way or form. Verbs: construct, invent, create.

Level 6: Evaluation Objectives focus on a student's ability to make a judgment about the value, for some purpose--ideas, work, solutions, methods, materials, communications, etc. Verbs: judge, defend, evaluate.

The Psychomotor Domain

This domain involves skills that require the use and coordination of skeletal muscles. The creative and performing arts, kinesiology and leisure studies, and science courses with a lab component often have objectives which fall in this domain.

Example:

Students will be able to effectively execute an overhand serve.

Students will be able to use facial expressions to evoke emotion.

The Affective Domain

This domain relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values. A goal in this domain might be "Students will appreciate the importance of lab safety." Objectives written for this domain relate to behaviors which are indications of a student's attitude, appreciation, or value.

Example:

"Students will consistently wear gloves when handling certain chemicals."

Instructors frequently have at least one goal in the affective domain which s/he considers a high priority for a class, but find it difficult to write measurable or observable objectives.

Level 1: Knowledge Objectives at this level emphasize simple regurgitation of facts, the knowledge of processes of dealing with facts, or with a student's awareness of criteria, methods, and processes (used verbs in objectives – define, recognize, reproduce, name, identify)

Level 2: Comprehension Objectives focus on a student's ability to translate or paraphrase a communication from one form to another or to derive the essential meanings of a communication (Verbs: interpret, translate, discuss)

Level 3: Application Objectives focus on a student's ability to apply what they have learned. Students must use the information they know (Verbs: apply, demonstrate, operate, use).

Level 4: Analysis Objectives focus on a student's ability to diagnose material, situations. Students separate the material, situation, or environment into its component parts and focus on the relationships among these parts to each other and to the total structural organization. Verbs: analyze, categorize, compare.

Level 5: Synthesis Objectives focus on a student's ability to organize the information they have acquired at the lower levels of learning and produce results. Synthesis requires a student to put together information, often in a new way or form. Verbs: construct, invent, create.

Level 6: Evaluation Objectives focus on a student's ability to make a judgment about the value, for some purpose--ideas, work, solutions, methods, materials, communications, etc. Verbs: judge, defend, evaluate.

The Psychomotor Domain

This domain involves skills that require the use and coordination of skeletal muscles. The creative and performing arts, kinesiology and leisure studies, and science courses with a lab component often have objectives which fall in this domain.

Example:

Students will be able to effectively execute an overhand serve.

Students will be able to use facial expressions to evoke emotion.

The Affective Domain

This domain relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values. A goal in this domain might be "Students will appreciate the importance of lab safety." Objectives written for this domain relate to behaviors which are indications of a student's attitude, appreciation, or value.

Example:

"Students will consistently wear gloves when handling certain chemicals."

Instructors frequently have at least one goal in the affective domain which s/he considers a high priority for a class, but find it difficult to write measurable or observable objectives.