История Лондона.
London was born hundreds of years before our era. On the banks of the Thames was a small settlement named Llyn-din. To this place, in the year 55 before our era Julius Caesar and his troops came from Rome.
Britain was conquered, and for 400 years remained a Roman province. Llyn-din became Londinium. Although Londinium was quite an important Roman Town, it was Winchester that was capital of Anglo-Saxon England.
In the 5th century the Romans left Britain, and other invaders came. During 400 years Londinium lay in ruins. Only in the 9th century the Saxon kings began to rebuild Londinium.
In 1066 William the Conqueror settled in Londinium which now became London - the capital of Norman Britain. For 500 years the Normans were masters of Britain. They brought with them Latin and French civilizations, built new palaces, churches and cathedrals in or near London. William the Conqueror built the Tower of London and Westminster Abbey where he was crowned the King of Britain.
In 1666 a great fire hit the city destroying most of buildings. In commemoration of the Fire a tall column 202ft high was erected not far from St. Paul's Cathedral. They were built by famous architect Sir Christopher Wren.
After the Fire houses were built of brick and stone, the streets were made much wider, a new London became one of the largest cities of the world.
Достопримечательности Лондона
1.London (General view)
London is before us, the capital of Great Britain, the city great and ancient, a large industrial and cultural centre.
2.The Thames
London stands on the river Thames. For centuries the River Thames was the main highway of London. It runs for some 300 kms. 300 kms of docks, fortresses and palaces established on near its banks.
3.The Tower
For nearly a thousand years history has been made in the Tower of London. William the Conqueror built this massive fortress. In its long history the Tower has been a palace, a fortress and a prison. Now it is a museum
4.Tower Bridge
There are 12 different bridges across the Thames. One of them is the Tower Bridge built in 1894. It consists of 2 steel towers joined by footbridges over 150 feet high but they are not used nowadays.
5.St. Paul's Cathedral
The City of London is the oldest part of London. It has the area of a square mile. The City of London is the centre of British business and commerce. It is also famous for its greatest monument - St. Paul's Cathedral. It was built in 1708 by the greatest English architect Sir Christopher Wren. It is the largest in England and second in the world. Christopher Wren and Admiral Nelson were buried there.
6.Fleet Street
There is a street in London which leads from St.Paul's Cathedral down to the Thames. It is Fleet Street named after the Fleet river that doesn't exist now. Fleet Street is the centre of the British newspaper industry and press.
7.The Houses of Parliament
Westminster is to the west of the City of London. This part of the capital is now a governmental one. The Houses of Parliament (or the Palace of Westminster) stand on the bank of the Thames. The present building dates only from the 19-th century but stands on the place of the ancient Westminster Palace. The national flag over the Victoria Tower indicates that the Parliament is sitting.
8."Big Ben"
The Clock Tower of the Houses of Parliament contains the hour-bell called "Big Ben" after Sir Benjamin Hall, the manager of the Houses’ reconstruction works. The clock is known the world over.
9.Westminster Abbey
Westminster Abbey was laid down in the middle of the 11-th century. The building we have today dates from about 1480. This church contains the tombs and memorials of Britain's greatest citizens: Chaucer, Charles Dickens, Shakespeare, Burns, Byron, Walter Scott and many others. Near the West Door of the Abbey there is a simple tomb of the Unknown Warrior.
10.Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace is used now as an official London residence of the Queen. It is also in the part of London known as Westminster. The large monument in front of it is the Queen Victoria Memorial who made the Palace her residence in 1837.
11.Downing Street,10
Downing Street is named after its builder, Sir George Downing. House number 10 is the official residence of the Prime Minister. Numbers 11 and 12 belong to the chief government leaders.
12.Trafalgar Square
Trafalgar Square is the centre of modern London. It was laid down to commemorate Nelson's victory at the battle of Trafalgar in 1841. The total height of the Nelson Column in the centre is 184 feet. The four bronze lions at the base decorate the column. Trafalgar Square has become famous for its meetings and political demonstrations.
13.Piccadilly Circus
The West End of London covers a large area of shopping centers, rich cinemas, theatres and clubs. At its heart is Piccadilly Circus - London theatre-land. In the centre there is the bronze fountain with the sculpture erected in 1893. Piccadilly Circus is symbol of London wealth.
14.The East End
There are many ways of spending money. But theе city must eat. The British wealth is being made in a working area - known as the East End. The working Londoners live here.
15.Picture 1.(как бы слайд?)
It is a country of dockers. London docks are closed now. All workers are sacked. Unemployment rules here. Three million - workers living in the East End, give Britain its wealth.
Semiconductor technology.
Most semiconductor devices are made by introducing controlled numbers of impurity atoms into a crystal. This process is called doping. To improve the semiconductor crystal the impurities known as dopant a are added to the silicon. They produce a special type of conductivity, characterized by either positive(p-type) charge carriers or negative/ (n-type) ones. The dopants are diffused into semiconductor crystals at high temperature.
In the furnace the crystals are surrounded by vapour containing atoms of the desired dopant. These atoms enter the crystal by substituting for the semiconductor atoms at regular sites in the crystal lattice and moving into the interior of the crystal by jumping from one site to an adjacent vacancy.
Silicon crystals may be doped with different elements. Suppose silicon is doped with boron. Each atom inserted in the silicon lattice creates a deficiency of one electron. This state is called a hole. A hole can become mobile in response to an applied voltage. It is not a real particle but merely the absence of an electron in a pure lattice of silicon atoms. Nevertheless the hole has a positive electric charge and can carry electric current. The hole moves through the lattice in the same way that the bubble moves through a liquid medium. An adjacent atom transfers an electron to the impurity atom "filling" the hole there but creating a new one in its own cloud of electrons. This process is then repeated, so that the hole is passed along from atom to atom.
Silicon doped with phosphorus or another pentavalent element is called an n-type semiconductor. Doping with boron or another trivalent element gives rise to p-type semiconductor.
Materials and components for solid-state Electronics.
Ever growing technology progress requires the specialists capable of working out, producing and applying the materials and components for solid-state electronics.
This kind of specialists should possess the knowledge of the physics, structure and properties of such materials as metals and their alloys, monocrystals and different films, nonconductive materials, superconductors and components for solid-state electronics.
To understand the inner structure of these materials and the laws of their formation and existence the students of our university take such subjects as:
- solid-state physics;
- microelectronics technology, materials of electronic engineering;
- materials study;
- the technology of electronic instrument making
- the fundamentals of vacuum technology;
- laser engineering and technology;
- the physics of semiconductor devices;
- the fundamentals of circuitry and designing of integrated circuits;
- mathematical modeling of technological processes and so on.
This kind of fundamental training enables the graduates from our university to work as:
- the researchers and developers of the new materials such as metal alloys, semiconductors, dielectrics, composite materials and so on;
- the researchers and developers of the new technological processes for obtaining the materials of a high degree purity, monocrystals, alloys, semiconductor structures, devices and integrated circuits;
- the technologists for production of radio-electronic components and materials;
- the technologists for thermal processing of metals and alloys.
The MBSTU graduates get the qualification of engineer-technologist after almost 6 years of study and after extra year are given that of engineer-developer.
Those who made good progress in the course of studies may continue their education in the post-graduate courses.
The main fields of research are
The research and development of the materials and deices for solid-state electronics;
The formation of functional surfaces with the use of highly concentrated energy sources;
Mathematical modeling of technological processes.