computer-aided translation – is a tool to assist human translation (a translator uses a machine translation system to find equivalents for words, words combinations etc.)

4. Значення слова та переклад. Багатозначність та широта значення слова. Лінгвістичний та екстралінгвістичний характер перекладу. Лексичне значення, конотація та асоціація.

Description of the translating process is one of the major tasks of the translation theory. Here we deal with the dynamic aspects of translation trying to understand how the translator performs the transfer operation from source text to target text. A model is a simple representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the source text or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator. The existing models of the translating process are based on the same assumptions(предположение) which we consider in discussing the problem of equivalence namely the situational model is based on the identity on the situations described in the original text and in the translation and the semantic-transformational model. In the situational model this intermediate level is extralinguistic. It is described reality, the facts of the life that are presented by the verbal description. A different approach was used by Nida who suggested that the translating may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational model postulates that in any two languages there is a number of nuclear structures which are fully equivalent to each other. A similar approach can be used to describe the translation of semantic units. The semantic model postulates the existence of the “deep” semantic categories common to source language and target language. It is presumed that the translator first reduced the semantic units of the original to these basic semantic categories and then expresses the appropriate notions by the semantic units of target language. Another approach to the description of the process of the translating consists in the identification of different types of operations performed by the translator. Here the process is viewed as a number of manipulations with the form or content of the original as a result of which the translator creates the text in the target language.

The first group of operations is characterized by imitation of the form of a word or of a collocation.

The second group of operations includes all types of lexical transformations involving certain semantic changes. As a result the meaning of a word or word combination in the ST may be made more specific more general or somewhat modified as a way to discovering as appropriate equivalent in TL.

The third group of translating procedures comprises all types of transformations involving units of SL grammar. Sometimes the translator can prefer portioning to the other possible methods of translation, as producing a variant more suitable stylistically or emotionally. Consider the following example: The annual surveys of the Labour Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only the employers. – Ежегодные сборы лейбористского правительства не обсуждались среди рабочих на этом этапе. Они обсуждались только с предпринимателями. Words in language are related to certain referents which they designate and to other words of the same language with which they make up syntactic units. These relationships are called semantic and syntactic, represectively.

Lexical meanings is the general concept corresponding to a word or a combination of words.

Connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually designative function of the lexical meaning.

Association is a more or less regular connection established between the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers.

5. Визначення перекладу як предмета лінгвістичного дослідження. Етапи перекладу. Головні теоретичні підходи до перекладу.

Translation means both a process and a result. In order to explain translation we need to compare the source text (original) and target one.

While translating we should consider extralinguistic situation and background information.

As an object of linguistic study translation is a complex entity consisting of the following interrelated components:

1. elements and structures of the source text;

2. elements and structures of the target text;

3. transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of the source text into those of the target text; system of the languages involved in translation;

4. conceptual content and organization of the source text;

5. conceptual content and organization of the target text;

6. interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source and target texts.

Translation is a functional interaction of languages.

3 stages of translation:

1. analysis of the source text, situation and background information;

2. synthesis of the translation model;

3. verification of the model against the source and target context (semantic, grammatical, stylistic) situation, and background information resulting in the generation of the final target text.

Verification is performed either simultaneously or with a delay (at first to understand the following sentence).

3 main translation approaches:

Transformational – denotative – communicational.

The transformational approach suggests that in any language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological and word-building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies in another language during translation (machine translation).

The denotative approach treats different languages as closed systems with specific relationships between formal and conceptual aspects, hence in the process of translation links between the forms of different languages are established via conceptual aspects equivalence.

The communicational approach highlights a very important aspect of translation – the matching of thesaurus. Translation may achieve its ultimate target only of the translator knows the user’s language and the subject matter of the translation well enough. Scientists argues about the priorities in a translators education.

6. Проблема перекладності. Поняття адекватності перекладу. Види перекладу: буквальний, вільний, адекватний.

Literal translating is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator адміністратор, director директор, region регіон, hotel/motelготель/мотель, hydrometer гідрометр, Tom Том, etc.

Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level, but their denotative meaning only: fearful страшний, fearless безстрашний, helpless безпорадний, incorrect неправильний, mistrust недовір'я (недовіра), superprofit надприбуток, non-interference невтручання, weightlessness невагомість etc.

Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating.

Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense, never say die is not ніколи не кажи помираю but не падай духом.

Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in the target language.

The interlinear way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units.

Literal translating – artistic translation (артистичний переклад віршів).

Adequate translating – is the maximum level of equivalents (підбір синонімів).

7. Еквівалентність та типи лексичних еквівалентів. Абсолютні та часткові еквіваленти. Переклад інтернаціональної лексики. Проблема "несправжніх друзів" перекладача.

Translating equivalent means indirectly equal, that is equal by the similarity of meanings (catch the idea). Translating equivalents in a dictionary are just the prompts for the translator. One may find a proper equivalent only in speech due to the context, situation and background language.

e.g. picture – to take pictures; Africa – чорний континент.

Traditionally and from practical viewpoint the optimal length of text for translation is a sentence.

The units of the target language with the meanings similar to the relevant units of the source language are called translation equivalents.

2 basic grades of target equivalents:

1. Full translation equivalents are used when there is complete coincidence of pragmatic meanings of the source and target language units.

2. Partial translation equivalents are the absence of one or more of equivalence aspects, that means syntactic, semantic or pragmatic aspects. Examples of semantic and pragmatic equivalents: зелений – green, зелений театр – open-air stage, зелений хлопчисько - greenhorn, зелений борщ – sorrel soup.

False friends.

There are words in 2 languages which are more or less similar in form. Translator considers them as permanent equivalents.

There words are similar, because of common origin (Latin or Greek). They can be found in a number of languages [translator’s false friends].

2 main groups:

1. similar in form – different in meaning (complexion, lunatic, accurate).

2. words which by different reasons are not fully interchange.

Reasons:

1. The semantic factor resulting from the different subsequent development of the words borrowed by the two languages from the same source.

South Vietnam was a vast laboratory for the testing of weapons of counter-guerrilla warfare.

Южный Вьетнам стал полигоном для испытания оружия, используемого в войне против партизан.

2. The stylistic factor resulting from the difference in the emotive or stylistic connotation of the correlated words.

Davy took on Faraday as his assistant and thereby opened a scientific career for him.

Дэви взял Фарадея к себе в ассистенты и тем самым открыл ему путь в науку.

3. The co-occurrence factor reflecting the difference in the lexical combinability rules in the two languages.

The reason for including only minor gestures of reforms in the program...

Причина включения в программу лишь жалкого подобия реформ…

4. The pragmatic factor reflecting the difference in the background knowledge of the members of the two language communities which makes the translator reject the formal equivalent in favour of the more explicit or familiar variant.

The American Revolution was a close parallel to the wars of national liberation in the colonial and semi-colonial countries.

Война за независимость в Америке была прямым прототипом национально-освободительных войн в колониальных и полуколониальных странах.

Internationalisms.

- language units which are borrowed another language. Internationalisms may be not only words but phrases, morphemes.

Prefixes: anti, inter, ex, trans, ultra.

Suffixes: ist, -ssion, - tion.

Inflexions: um (memorandum), -a (formula).

Are used in:

1. economic, politic, social terminology.

2. history / sciences.

3. technical terms.

8. Безеквівалентна лексика. Реалія як компонент соціально-історичного і національно-культурного контексту. Класифікація. Способи перекладу: транскрипція, транслітерація, калькування, описовий переклад.

EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS

Безэквивалентная лексика – это слова или словосочетания, обозначающие предметы, процессы и явления, которые на данном этапе развития языка перевода не имеют в нем эквивалентов. (drugstore – аптека-закусочная (Ильф и Петров „Одноэтажная Америка”), selectman – член городского управления).

При переводе безэквивалентной лексики используются:

- перифразирование

- синонимия

When new words come into being to denote new objects or phenomena, they naturally cannot have regular equivalents in another language. Such equivalents may only gradually evolve as the result of extensive contacts between the two nations. Therefore the translator coming across a new coinage has to interpret its meaning and to choose the appropriate way of rendering it in his translation. Consider the following sentence: "In many European capitals central streets have been recently pedestrianized.'¹ First, the translator will recognize the origin of "pedestrianize" which is coined from the word "pedestrian" — «пешеход» and the verb-forming suffix -ize. Then he will realize the impossibility of a similar formation in Russian (опешеходить!) and will opt for a semantic transformation: «движение транспорта было запрещено», «улицы были закрыты для транспорта» or «улицы были отведены только для пешеходов».

Various translators may select different ways of translating a new coinage, with several substitutes competing with one another. As a rule, one of them becomes more common and begins to be used predominantly. For instance, the new term "word-processor" was translated into Russian as «словообработчик», «словопроцессор» and «текстопроцессор», the last substitute gaining the upper hand. The translator should carefully watch the development of the usage and follow the predominant trend.

Similar problems have to be solved by the translator when he deals with equivalent-lacking words referring to various SL realia. As often as not, the translator tries to transfer the name to TL by way of borrowing, loan word or approximate equivalents. Many English words have been introduced in Russian in this way: «бейсбол» (baseball), «небоскреб» (skyscraper), «саквояжники» (carpet baggers), etc. Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this type, however, still have no established substitutes in Russian, and the translator has to look for an occasional equivalent each time he comes across such a word in the source text. Mention can be made here of 'filibustering", "baby-sitter", "tinkerer", "know-how", "ladykiller", and many others.

A large group of equivalent-lacking English words includes words of general semantics which may have a great number of substitutes in Russian which cannot be listed or enumerated. These are such words as "approach, control, corporate, pattern, record, facility", etc. Numerous lexical units of this type are created by conversion especially when compound verbs are nominalized. What is "a fix-up" for example? It can refer to anything that is fixed up. And "a set-up" is anything that is set up, literally or figuratively. The translator is expected to understand the general idea conveyed by the word and to see what referent it is denoting in each particular case.

Special attention should be paid to English conjunctions and prepositions which are often used differently from their apparent equivalents in Russian and are, in fact, equivalent-lacking. Such common conjunctions as "when, if, as, once, whichever".

Similar pitfalls can be set for the translator by such productive English "semi-suffixes" as -minded, -conscious, -oriented, -manship,etc.

Realia – names or objects unknown to the target language speaker.

1. SL realia;

2. TL realia.

Ways of handling:

1. semantic transformation, when it’s impossible to translate directly;

2. to translate by several substitutes (and after that use one of the most common “word-processor”;

3. by way of borrowing words (калькування) – Госдума – State Duma;

4. if the word has many substitutes – choose one according to a context.

Descriptive translating – a kind, when the notion in source language is conveyed in target language only through word-combination or whole sentence. Descriptive translating implies structural transformation.

Transliteration – the transmission of text, written with the help of one alphabet by the means of the other alphabet. Often used to translate proper names.

Context-free words have an important role to play in the translating process. They usually have permanent equivalents in TL which, in most cases, can be used in TT. The translator is thus provided with reference points helping him to choose the appropriate translation variants. The permanent equivalents of context-free words are often formed by transcription (with possible elements of transliteration) or loan translations.

Proper and geographical names are transcribed with TL letters, e.g.: Smith - Смит, Brown – Браун.

The same is true about the titles of periodicals and the names of firms and corporations, e.g.: Life-лЛайф», US News and World Report — «ЮС ньюс энд уорлд рипорт», General Motors Corporation - «Дженерал моторе корпорейшн».

The rules of transcription have two minor exceptions. First, it is sometimes supplemented by elements of transliteration when SL letters are reproduced in TT instead of sounds. This technique is used with mute and double consonants between vowels or at the end of the word and with neutral vowels (Dorset —Дорсет, Bonners Ferry —Боннере Ферри) as well as to preserve some elements of SL spelling so as to make the TL equivalent resemble some familiar pattern (the Hercules missile — ракета «Геркулес», Columbia - Колумбия). Second, there are some traditional exceptions in rendering the names of historical personalities and geographical names, e.g.: Charles I —Карл I, James II —Яков П, Edinborough — Эдинбург.

Возможны 2 типа свободного перевода устойчивых выражений: калькирование и описательный перевод.

Калькирование – дословный перевод, при котором в языке перевода сохраняются семантические и стилистические признаки оригинала. Калькирование применяется в тех случаях, когда в англ. языке эквивалентная лексическая единица отсутствует, а более или менее дословный перевод русского сочетания, особенно метафорического, будет в целом понятен и будет передавать образность. Например, незрелая мысль – green idea, Государственная Дума – State Duma.

Описательный перевод – переводчик раскрывает значение описательным путем. Например, словосочетание видное место (в газете) можно передать как терминологически – prominent place, так и описательным путем: поместить на видном месте – to feature a story.

Крылатое выражение человек в футляре не имеет подобного эквивалента в англ языке, поэтому его перевод будет описательным: a person who keeps oneself in cotton wool and is afraid of any changes.

Національно-культурний контекст

Culturally biased, i.e., nationally specific are often elements in a governmental or election systems of a country (cf. the administra­tion, secretaries and undersecretaries or primary elections in the U.S.A.).

The monetary systems in most countries contain some na­tionally peculiar units as well (cf. shilling, penny, rouble, dollar, hryvnia). Culturally biased are mostly the titles of address and the ways of conduct, and, at last but not at least, some articles of clothing / footware (cf. the Scottish kilt, tartan, the Ukrainian вишиванка, кептар or the American Indians' moccasins).

Most peculiar are always national meals, beverages and even partaking of food, established as a result of a nation's agricultural traditions and consumption of peculiar products. The nationally bi­ased notions as non-equivalent units of lexicon are also observed in some national systems of weights and measures (cf. English mile, ounce, Ukrainian верства, пуд). All in all, these notions are found in all languages, for example, in English: county, borough, butterscotch, custard, muffin, toffee, bushel, chain, furlong, inch, mile, pint, penny, shilling, pound, lady, mister, sir; lobby, speaker, teller (Parliament), Lord Chancellor, Number 10 Downing Street, Whitehall, etc. Ukrainian: кобзар, веснянка, коломийка, козак, запорожець, кептар, копа (яєць), пуд, січ, свитка, хата, лежанка, весільний батько, троїсті музики, вечорниці, борщ, вареники, галушки, кутя, медок, ряжанка, опришок, плахта, гривня; Russian: тройка, квас, щі, самовар, колхоз, совет (советский), спутник, Дума.

Still other specific national notions become world-wide known through literary/historic works, through the press or by way of other mass media like the radio or television (cf. oasis, boycott, hryvnia, Labourist, pagoda, barter, management, picket, taboo, Tory, rickshaw, sauna, Soviet, etc.).

9. Характеристика основних функціональних стилів та питання перекладу. Жанрово-стилістичні с особливості перекладу художньої, суспільно-політичної, дипломатичної, юридичної, науково-технічної літератури та документів.

Functional Styles

The study of different languages reveals that there exist a lot of varieties of any language. We are concerned with variations caused by the sphere of application. The same should be treated differently in: science, newspaper, official document, fiction.

All the differences come into play when we deal with translation. The choice of means of the TL aimed at achieving adequacy in translation is determined by each functional style.

A style is a system of interrelated language devices intended to fulfill a specific function of communication. The main distinction of communication made between spoken and written varieties of language.

The spoken variety is represented by:

1. the language of everyday communication;

2. oratorical style.

The written:

1. official style;

2. publicistic;

3. newspaper;

4. scientific

5. the style of fiction.

They are divided into substyles: poetry, prose, novels etc.

Peculiarities of functional style vary between languages. However, each style has specific features (in grammar, vocabulary).

Official style:

• language of business documents;

• legal documents;

• diplomacy;

• language of military documents.

The main aim: to reach agreement between parts.

Features:

1) a special system of clichés, which have standard equivalents (on behalf and instruction – от имени и по поручению);

2) vocabulary – the highest degree of formality;

3) the use of words in the non-emotive meanings;

4) words of the 1^st dictionary meanings;

5) Latin expressions (ad hoc);

6) archaic words (hereby);

7) names of countries;

8) compositional design;

9) gerundial and participial structures;

10) passive constructions;

11) SHALL – rendered into Russian by the Present forms ( The parties shall be responsible. – Сторони несуть відповідальність);

12) long sentences.

In translation follow compositional patterns, use clichés, preserve formality.

Publicistic style:

• rhetorical;

• essays;

• articles.

The main aim: to convey introduction (denotative), to convince (impressive).

In Russian achieved by solemn tone (торжественный тон). Russian prefers long sentences, emotional words, emphatic speech. English is different: personal relation to the receiver, emotional pressure is unacceptable. The sender presents the information, the emotional assessment is left for the receiver. English avoids bookish words.

E.g. Сутність цієї літератури полягає у полум’яному прагненні до вирішення поза літературних завдань. – These writers strive towards goals that lie outside literature.

To reject – to turn down, to admire – look up to, to tolerate – to put up with, to compensate – to make up for, to support, to stand behind.

It is essential that she should make an attempt to achieve the state of relaxation. – She must try to relax.

Newspaper style:

• brief news items;

• press reports;

• advertisements;

• editorials.

The main aim: to influence, to give information.

Features: 1) specific terminology (political, economic);

2) clichés (vital issues);

3) abbreviations;

4) neologisms and vogue words (модные слова) – globalization, ozone-layer, politically correct, agenda, google – повисеть, приколоться, up-to-date, Frankenstein food, glitzy – пафосный.

5) grammar: complex sentences, noun structures;

6) headlines;

7) Present for Past, Infinitive for Future.

Headlines voc-ry: to hit, to ban, to quit, to quiz – производить допрос, bit – инициатива, red – коммунист.

English newspaper style is more colloquial.

Scientific style:

• specific terminology;

• words in one meaning;

• passive structures;

• use of impersonal structures;

• quotations, references;

• data and figures;

• abbreviations.

Translation requires to use the same equivalents. The use of the synonyms may give the impression that reference is made to another notion.

10. Особливості перекладу матеріалів офіційно-ділового стилю. Жанрові особливості тексту та вибір слова з синонімічного ряду.

Unlikely literary texts, the texts of official documents are highly standardized.

Structure of official documents:

1. macro level:

• preamble;

• main text body;

• concluding part.

2. micro level:

frame - the arrangement of individual paragraphs and sentences.

Document – a set of language structure with unchangeable elements

slots – changeable elements within the text frame

Blank spaces that should be filled with slot fillers (date, company, name, address).

Official styles:

• business documents;

• legal documents;

• diplomacy documents;

• military documents.

Features of the official style:

• usage of abbreviations;

• use words in their logical dictionary meaning;

• absence of emotiveness.

The task of a translator of official documents is to find target language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers in compliance with the document content.

11. Збіжності та розходження граматичних моделей мови-джерела і мови-мети. Трансформації при перекладі. Регулярні та оказіональні трансформації.

There are 3 types of translation: syntactic, semantic, pragmatic.

Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level during translation.

The majority of syntactic transformations in English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, that means that the translator transforms the source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which are unknown and the translator’s decisions relevant to the case are often intuitive.

In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the matter of translator’s choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.

In Eng-Ukr translation there are also cases of regular syntactic transformations, where a translator is expected to observe certain transformation rules more or less strictly.

Regular syntactic transformations are the matching rules for the grammars of the two languages involved in translation. The goal of a translation manual is to show how and why the matching rules of the grammatical system of the two languages involved in translation are violated.

For example: Gerund – is a peculiar English language phenomenon missing in Ukrainian. As a rule Gerund is translated into Ukrainian by Infinitive or Verbal Nouns.

Regular transformations do not presenta serious problem for translation because of their regularity and predictability: what is needed is to know the relevant rule and use it in translation practice, unlike occasional transformations and equivalents which require individual and sometimes unique solutions.

The relationship between the source and target word forms is occasional rather than regular. Example:

(1)The sea is warm tonight – Сьогодні ввечері море тепле

(2)Staff only – Службове приміщення

First instance- the equivalencies are regular and the concept may be divided into individual components; sea-море, tonight-сьогодні ввечері, is warm-тепле. The second instance – the equivalencies between the original sentence and its translation is occasional and the concept cannot be divided into individual components.

12. Граматичні трансформації при перекладі: зміна порядку слів, перестановка, зміна частин мови та членів речення. Трансформація добавлення та заміщення. Членування та об'єднання речень при перекладі. Антонімічний переклад.

The basic set of translation devices usually comprises partitioning and integration of sentences, transposition of sentence parts, replacement, addition and omission of words and word combinations as well as a special type of transformations called antonymous translation.

Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target one. There are inner partitioning and outer partitioning. In.part. is used when translating English verbal complexes into Ukrainian: Come along and see me play one evening – Приходь коли-небудь увечері – побачишб як я граю. Outer part. is more a matter of personal translator’s choice based on the proper account of stylistic and genre peculiarities and communication intent of both the source text and its translation: There was a real game too, not a party game played in the old school hall and invented by my eldest brother Herbert, who was of an adventurous character until he was changed by the continual and sometimes shameful failures of his adult life. – Була і справжня, а не солона гра, у яку ми грали в актовому залі старої школи. Цю гру вигадав мій старший брат Герберт – людина винахідлива і схильна до всіляких пригод, доки постійні і часом ганебні негаразди дорослого життя не змінили його вдачу.

Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or more source sentences into one target sentence.

Олена Філіп’єва любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них довго не танцює – починає сумувати. – Olena Filip’eva loves all her roles and even misses them should too much time pass without performing them.

Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in translation meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (Subject, Object) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intent: “The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes, “ the girl added with a smile – “Приблизно за 15 хвилин на цей рейс буде посадка біля виходу номер 17”, - посміхаючись, додала дівчина.

Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms.” No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted.” – Не встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.

Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language. “ Green Party federal election money – гроші Партії зелених, призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні”.

Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistic. (omission is the opposite of addition) :fuel tax protests – протести пов’язані з підвищенням податку на паливо – protests related to the increase of the tax fuel.

Antonymous translation – affirmative in structure language unit is converged via a negative (in sense or structure but identical in language unit or vice versa).

Take it easy – не хвилюйся;

Немає лиха без добра – Every dark cloud has a silver lining.

The antonymous translation is employed in the cases.

1. When in the TL there is no direct equivalent for the sense unit of the source language.

2. When the sense unit of the source language has two negations of its own in which create an affirmation.

3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness.

I don’t think it will hurt u – Думаю, вам вони не зашкодять.

4. To avoid using the same structures (stylistic aim).

13. Лексичні трансформації при перекладі. Засоби диференціації, генералізації, конкретизації, смислового розвитку значення.

Лексико-семантические замены - это способ перевода лексических единиц оригинала путем использования в перево­де единиц ПЯ, значение которых не совпадает со значениями исходных единиц, но может быть выведено из них с по­мощью определенного типа логических преобразований. Основ­ными видами подобных замен являются конкретизация, гене­рализация и модуляция (смысловое развитие) значения исход­ной единицы.

1)Конкретизацией называется замена слова или словосо­четания ИЯ с более широким предметно-логическим значени­ем словом и словосочетанием ПЯ с более узким значением. В результате применения этой трансформации создаваемое соот­ветствие и исходная лексическая единица оказываются в логи­ческих отношениях включения: единица ИЯ выражает родовое понятие, а единица ПЯ - входящее в нее видовое понятие:

Concretization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with narrower meaning or when preserving the original concepts with broader meaning would result in an awkward translation.

E.g. There were pictures on all the walls and there was a vase with flowers on the table. – На всех стенах комнаты висели картины, а на столе стояла ваза.

Широко распространена конкретизация английских глаголов «говорения» to say и to tell, которые могут переводиться на русский язык не только как «говорить» или «сказать», но и бо­лее конкретными «промолвить, повторить, заметить, утверж­дать, сообщать, просить, возразить, велеть» и т.п.:

"So what?" I said. - Ну и что? - спросил я.

Не told me I should always obey my father. - Он посоветовал мне всегда слушаться моего отца.

The boss told me to come at once. - Хозяин велел мне прийти сейчас же.

2)Генерализацией называется замена единицы ИЯ, имею­щей более узкое значение, единицей ПЯ с более широким значением, т.е. преобразование, обратное конкретизации. Созда­ваемое соответствие выражает родовое понятие, включающее исходное видовое:

Generalization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when preserving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in an awkward translation.

E.g. She ordered a daiquiri (a sweet alcohol drink made of rum and fruit) – Она заказала коктейль.

Не showed us his old beat-up' Navajo blanket. - Он нам показал свое потрепанное индейское одеяло.

3)Модуляцией или смысловым развитием называется за­мена слова или словосочетания ИЯ единицей ПЯ, значение которой логически выводится из значения исходной единицы. Наиболее часто значения соотнесенных слов в оригинале и пе­реводе оказываются при этом связанными причинно-следствен­ными отношениями: I don't blame them. - Я их понимаю. (Причина заменена следствием: я их не виню потому, что я их понимаю). He's dead now. - Он умер. (Он умер, стало быть, он сейчас мертв.) Не always made you say everything twice. - Он всегда переспрашивал. (Вы были вынуждены повторять сказан­ное, потому что он вас переспрашивал.) При использовании метода модуляции причинно-следственные отношения часто имеют более широкий характер, но логическая связь между двумя наименованиями всегда сохраняется:

В следующем примере эта связь более явная, но и здесь это скорее не «потому что», а «поскольку, постольку»:

Не would cheer up somehow, begin to laugh again and draw skeletons all over his slate, before his eyes were dry.

Он снова приободрялся, начинал смеяться и рисовал на своей грифельной доске разные фигурки, хотя глаза его еще были полны слез.

14. Засоби перекладу фразеологічних одиниць та усталених словосполучень не фразеологічних за характером. Збереження образності під час перекладу.

Idiomatic/phraseological expression – are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences having the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts. They produce a considerable expressive effect for, besides conveying information, they appeal to the reader's emotions, his aesthetic perception, his literary and cultural associations. An idiom's semantics are a complex entity and there are five aspects of its meaning that will influence the translator's choice of an equivalent in the target language. They are the idiom's figurative meaning, its literal sense, its emotive character, stylistic register and national colouring. The figurative meaning is the basic element of the idiom's semantics. Thus "red tape" means bureaucracy, "to kick the bucket" means to die, and "to wash dirty linen in public" means to disclose one's family troubles to outsiders. Idioms can be positive, negative or neutral. It is clear that "to kill two birds with one stone" is good, "to find a mare's nest" is a ludicrous mistake while "Rome was not built in a day" is a neutral statement of fact. They can also differ in their stylistic usage: they may be bookish (to show one's true colours) or colloquial (to be a pain in the neck). Besides, an idiom can be nationally coloured, that is include some words which mark it as the product of a certain nation. For instance, "to set the Thames on fire" and "to carry coals to Newcastle" are unmistakably British. There are four typical methods to handle a SL idiom in the translating process.

First, the translator can make use of a TL idiom which is identical to the SL idiom in all five aspects of its semantics, e.g. "to pull chestnuts out of the fire for smb." — таскать каштаны из огня для кого-либо.

Second, the SL idiom can be translated by a TL idiom which has the same figurative meaning, preserves the same emotive and stylistic characteristics but is based on a different image, that is, has a different literal meaning, e.g. "make hay while the sun shines" — куй железо, пока горячо.

Third, the SL idiom can be translated by reproducing its form word-for-word in TL, e.g. "People who live in glass houses should not throw stones." - Люди, живущие в стеклянных домах, не должны бросать камни.

Fourth, instead of translating the SL idiom, the translator may try to explicate its figurative meaning, so as to preserve at least the main element of its semantics.

The meaning of a considerable number of idiomatic as well as stable/set expressions can be rendered through explication only, i.e., in a descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning con­tained in the source-language idiom, it can be expressed in the tar­get language in some ways:

1) by a single word: out of a clear blue.of the sky раптом, зненацька; to pall and peel (to peel and pall) грабувати/оббирати; poor fish йолоп, бевзь, нікчема; red blood мужність, відвага, хоробрість; to sell smoke піддурювати, підманювати; to seta-limit to smth. обмежувати, стримувати; to set at large звільнювати (випустити на волю); to go aloft померти;

2) undoubtedly the most frequent is rendering the sense of idiomatic/phraseological expressions with the help of free combina­tions of words as in: to run amock нападати зненацька на першу-ліпшу людину; school miss школярка, соромлива, недосвідчена дівчина; to sell someone short недооцінювати когось; to sham Abraham удавати з себе хворого (прикидатися хворим); to shoot Niagara вдаватися до ризикованих дій, short odds майже рівні шанси; to sit above the salt сидіти на почесному місці; the sixty-four dollar question найважливіше, вирішальне питання; a stitch in time своєчасний захід/вчинок, своєчасна дія; to go to rack (wrack) ruin загинути; зовсім розоритися; to go west/West пропасти, зникнути, зійти зі сцени (переносно);

3) when the lexical meaning of an original idiomatic expres­sion is condensed or when it is based on a nationally specific notion/ structural form alien to the target languages, the idiomatic expres­sion may be conveyed by a sentence or a longer explanation: a wet blanket людина або обставина, що розхолоджує; well day (well-day) день, коли у хворого не погіршувався стан здоров'я (час між приступами гарячки, малярії тощо); wise behind млявий, що погано міркує; white elephant подарунок, якого важко позбутися (те, що приносить більше турбот, ніж користі); yes man (yes-man) людина, що з усіма згоджується, тільки підтакує (підтакувач); to cut off with a shilling залишити без спадщини; fight like Kilkenny cats битися до взаємного знищення; to accept (the Stewardship) of the Chiltern Hundreds (Parliament) скласти з себе обов'язки члена британського парламенту.

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