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quite enjoyable. But personal pleasure is not what prompts the formation of secondary groups in the first place. In short, while members of a primary group have personal importance on the basis of who they are, members of secondary groups have significance on the basis of what they can do for us.

Individuals in primary groups are likely to be sensitive to patterns of social exchange - how benefits received by one member compare to those received by another - although such considerations are not of crucial importance. Within secondary groups, however, exchange is very important. In business transactions, for example, the people involved are keenly aware of what they receive for what they offer. Likewise, the secondary relationships that often characterize neighbours are based on the expectation that any neighbourly favour will be reciprocated in the future.

The goal orientation of secondary groups diverts the focus of social interaction from personal matters to mutually beneficial cooperation. With the wish to maximize these benefits, members of secondary groups are likely to craft their performances carefully, and usually expect others to do the same. Therefore, the secondary relationship is one in which the question «How are you?» may be politely asked without really wanting an answer.

XV. Answer the following questions:

1.What groups do sociologists distinguish?

2.Who was the first to speak on the importance of such distinction?

3.What group is called primary?

4.What is the most important primary group for a

child?

5.What groups influence the child's social development?

6.How are secondary groups organized?

7.Give examples of such groups.

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8.What group plays an important part in the formation of personality?

9.What does the child receive within the circle of his family and his playmates?

10.What else does he learn there?

XVI. Contradict the following statements. Start your sentence with: «Quite on the contrary...»

1.Primary groups are organized according to special interests of one kind or another.

2.For a young child the school group constitutes the most important group.

3.Secondary groups depend on face to face association.

4.Secondary groups are more characterized with intimate co-operation than primary groups.

5.It is the secondary group that plays the main part in the early formation of personality.

6.Within the secondary group the child receives the direct training as a member of society.

XVII. Ask your friend:

—who drew a distinction between social groups;

—what he understands by a primary group;

—what group the family presents;

—why the primary groups are of major importance in our lives;

—what the strength of primary relationships gives individuals;

—what a secondary group is characterized by;

—what ties individuals share within the secondary group;

—what groups are less significant - primary or secondary;

—in what respect group social exchange is more important.

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I.Primary groups.

II. Secondary groups.

XXIV. Read the text and say what new information is contained in it:

Networks

The term social network designates social ties that link people without the intensity of social interaction and common identity of a social group. A social network resembles a social group in that it joins people in social relationships; it differs from a social group because it is not the basis for consistent social interaction and generates little sense of common identity or belonging. Social networks also have no clear boundaries, but expand outward from the individual like a vast web.

Social ties within some networks may be relatively primary, as among people who attended college together and have since maintained their friendships by mail and telephone. More commonly, network ties are extremely secondary relationships that involve little personal knowledge. A social network may also contain people we know of or who know of us - but with whom we interact infrequently, if at all. As one woman with a reputation as a community organizer explains, «I get calls at home, someone says, ‘Are you Roseann Navarro? Somebody told to call you. I have this problem…” For this reason, Mark

Granovetter has described social networks as clusters of weak ties.

Even though social ties within networks may not be strong, these relationships represent a valuable resource that can be used to personal advantage. Perhaps the most common example of the power of networks involves finding a job. Albert Einstein, for example, sought employment for a year after completing his schooling, and only succeeded when the father of one of his classmates put him in touch with the director of an office who was able to provide a job.

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Thus, even in the case of a person with extraordinary ability, who you know may still be just as important as what you know.

Nan Lin and her associates produced evidence of the extent of such network — based opportunities. Conducting a survey of 399 men in an urban area of the United States, Lin found that almost 60 percent had used social networks in finding a job; this approach was much more common that any other. But although social networks may be widespread, Lin found that they do not provide equal advantages to everyone. In her study networks afforded the greatest advantages to men whose fathers held important occupational positions. This reflects the fact that networks tend to contain people with similar social characteristics and social rank, thereby helping to perpetuate patterns of social inequality.

XXV. Answer the questions:

1.What does the term «social network» designate?

2.What are the differences and similarities between a social network and a social group?

3.Are social ties within networks strong or weak?

XXVI. Give examples when:

1)social ties within networks are primary;

2)social ties are secondary;

3)social ties are weak.

WORD STUDY

I. Find in the text «Primary and Secondary Groups»

English equivalents for:

в большинстве случаев; полный отчет; личный интерес; прочные связи; благополучие; формирование установок; скорее чем; быть ограниченным; граница; достигнуть определенной цели; целевая ориентация;

напротив; взаимовыгодное сотрудничество.

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II.Make up word-combinations and translate them into Russian:

III. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1.Such considerations are not of crucial importance.

2.Personal concern in social interaction is of certain value in drawing a distinction between primary and secondary groups.

3.The family is of major significance in shaping personal attitudes and behaviour.

4.The problem of interpersonal relationships is of great interest for the social thinkers.

5.Secondary relationships are of definite importance in the study of social groups of people.

6.Human activity in social community is of deep concern for the sociologists.

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IV. Make up your own sentences with — «to be of importance, to be of value» — and ask your partner to translate them.

V. Answer the following questions:

1.What is of great concern for the sociologists in the study of primary groups?

2.What is of chief significance for you in your subject of investigation?

8.What is of major interest for the sociologists dealing with the public opinion poll?

VI. Role-play:

1)You have just come back from the international conference devoted to some problems of social interaction. You think this conference was of great importance. You give your reasons to your friend who is also deeply concerned with the given problem.

2)You see an advertisement in a newspaper which is of deep concern for you. Phone up and find out more about the flat to rent. If the flat sounds suitable, arrange to go round and see it.

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UNIT IX

I. Read and translate the text:

Group Dynamics

Sociologists describe the operation of social groups as group dynamics. As members of social groups, people are likely to interact according to a number of distinctive patterns.

Group Leadership

Social groups vary in the extent to which they designate one or more members as leaders, with responsibility to direct the activities of all members. Some friendship groups grant no one the clear status of leader, while others do. Within families, parents generally share leadership responsibilities, although husband and wife sometimes disagree about who is really in charge. In many secondary groups, such as a business office, leadership is likely to involve an established status with clearly defined roles.

There are several different ways in which a person may become recognized as the leader of a social group. In the family, traditional cultural patterns confer leadership on the parents, though more often on the male as head of the household if two spouses are present. In other cases, such as friendship groups, one or more persons may gradually emerge as leaders, although there is no formal process of selection. In larger secondary groups, leaders are usually formally chosen through election or recruitment.

Although leaders are often thought to be people with unusual personal ability, decades of research have failed to produce consistent evidence that there is any category of «natural leaders». It seems that there is no set of personal qualities that all leaders have in common; rather, virtually any person may be recognized as a leader depending on the particular needs of the group.

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Furthermore, although we commonly think of social groups as having a single leader, research suggests that there are typically two different leaderships that are held by different individuals. Instrumental leadership is leadership that emphasizes the completion of tasks by a social group. Group members look at instrumental leaders to «get things done». Expressive leadership, on the other hand, is leadership that emphasizes the collective wellbeing of a social group's members. Expressive leaders are less concerned with the overall goals of the group than providing emotional support to group members and attempting to minimize tension and conflict among them. Group members expect expressive leaders to maintain stable relationships within the group and provide support to individual members.

The Importance of Group Size

Being the first person to arrive at a party affords the opportunity to observe a fascinating process in group dynamics. When fewer than about six people interact in one setting, a single conversation is usually maintained by everyone. But with the addition of more people, the discussion typically divides into two or more conversations. This example is a simple way of showing that size has important effects on the operation of social groups.

The basis for this dynamic lies in the mathematical connection between the number of people in a social group and the number of relationships among them as shown in Figure 3. Two people are joined in a single relationship; adding a third person results in three relationships, a fourth person yields six. As additional people are added one at a time - according to what mathematicians call an arithmetic increase the number of relationships increases very rapidly - in what is called a geometric increase. By the time six people have joined one conversation, there are fifteen different relationships among them, which explains why the conversation usually divides by this point.

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Figure 3. Group Size and Relationships

Social groups with more than three members tend to be more stable because the lack of interest on the part of one or even several members does not directly threaten the group's existence. Furthermore, larger social groups tend to develop more formal social structure — with a variety of statuses and roles - which stabilize their operation. However, larger social groups inevitably lack the increase of personal relationships that are possible in the smallest groups.

Is there an ideal size for a social group? The answer, of course, depends on the group's purpose.