Words and expressions

scrupulous - exact; thorough; accurate; precise; careful; rigorous

(скрупулезный)

rigorous - exact; thorough; accurate; precise; careful; scrupulous

(строгий)

rudiment - origin; seed; embryo

(рудимент)

preconceived - fixed; set; defined; predetermined; inflexible

(предвзятый)

interplay - interaction; relationship; interchange;

(взаимодействие)

reasoning - way of thinking; analysis; logic; calculation; interpretation

(рассуждение)

scope - range; extend; possibility; scale

(возможность)

matter - topic; theme; issue; affair; substance; stuff

(вопрос)

clear-cut - straightforward; definite; easy; clear

(четкий)

elapsed - over and done; gone

(законченный)

infer - suppose; understand; assume

(вывести)

verify - prove; confirm; make sure

(проверить)

derived - resulting; consequent (полученный)

premise - basis; idea; principle; foundation; argument; hypothesis;

ground (предпосылка)

plausible - reasonable; probable; possible (вероятный)

ultimate - decisive; final; vital; crucial

(решающий; предел)

consistency - uniformity; reliability; steadiness

(последовательность)

swayed - influenced; persuaded

(колеблющийся; подверженный влиянию)

intuit - feel; have a filling; be aware of

(постигнуть интуитивно)

rigor - thoroughness; firmness; strictness; inflexibility

(суровость)

Exercise 1

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. How can you explain the expression “scientific method”?

2. What is the difference between philosophy and science?

3. When did the era of modern science begin?

4. What are the main concepts used by scientific method?

5. What does objectivity of scientific approach indicate to?

6. How acceptability of scientific approach is judged?

7. What does scientific method involve?

8. Does science attempt to develop the broad laws by using reasoning processes?

9. Is there a single path to discovery in science?

10. Can straightforward description be given for all the ways in which scientific truth is pursued?

11. What is the ultimate test of the validity of a scientific hypothesis?

12. How does scientific community judge the work of its members?

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими по смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. The principles that guide scientific research and experimentation are expressed by the term … … .

2. Philosophy in general is concerned with the why, but science occupies itself with … only, but in a scrupulously rigorous manner.

3. The era of … is generally considered to have begun with the Renaissance.

4. Rudiments of the … … to knowledge can be observed throughout human history.

5. Definitions of scientific method use such concepts as … of approach to and … of the results of scientific study.

6. Objectivity indicates the attempt to observe things … … .

7. Acceptability is judged in terms of the degree to which … and … can be reproduced.

8. By … … , science attempts to develop the broad laws.

9. No single path to discovery exists in … .

10. Galileo formulated the hypothesis that the … attained is directly proportional to the … traversed.

11. The ultimate test of the validity of a scientific hypothesis is its … with the totality of other aspects of the scientific framework.

12. In science every effect is assumed to be … with a cause.

13. The scientific community judges the work of its members by the … with which that work has been conducted.

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. The principles that guide scientific research and experimentation are denoted by a term “scientific method”.

2. Philosophy in general is concerned with the how of things, science occupies itself with why only.

3. The era of modern science is generally considered to have begun with the Industrial Revolution.

4. Scientific approach to knowledge can be observed after invention of steam engine.

5. Scientific method uses such concept as subjectivity of approach.

6. Subjectivity indicates the attempt to observe things as they are, without falsifying observations.

7. Scientific method also involves inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

8. By inductive and deductive reasoning processes, science attempts to develop the broad laws.

9. Separate disciplines of science are similar in terms of subject matter and the possible ways of studying that subject matter.

10. Only a single path to discovery exists in science.

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Scientific method; scientific research; experimentation; scientific approach; objectivity of approach; acceptability of the results; scientific study; observations and experimentations; inductive reasoning; deductive reasoning; to develop the broad laws; scientific truth; hypothesis; to verify experimentally; scientific framework; prevailing worldview; experimental results; scientific community.

Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.

Exercise 6

Выделите пять основных идей текста.

Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

Knowledge of nature; pure science; applied science; scientific investigation; deductive reasoning; inductive reasoning; scientific progress; social science; mainstream of science; electricity is part of physics; scientific theories; specialized fields of research; branch of science.

Exercise 8

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. The Pythagorean scholars distinguished only four sciences: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

2. By the time of Aristotle mechanics, optics, physics, meteorology, zoology, and botany were also recognized.

3. Chemistry remained outside the mainstream of science until the time of Robert Boyle in the 17th century.

4. The pure natural sciences are generally divided into two classes: the physical sciences and the biological, or life, sciences.

5. The principal branches among the physical sciences are physics, astronomy, chemistry, and geology.

6. Interrelationships between sciences are considered responsible for much of the progress today in several specialized fields of research, such as molecular biology and genetics.

7. The applied sciences include such fields as aeronautics, electronics, engineering, and metallurgy.

8. Advances in science are generally the result of research by teams of specialists representing different sciences, both pure and applied.

Exercise 9

Переведите на английский язык:

1. Большинство лабораторий института проводят научные исследования и эксперименты в области электротехники и теплотехники.

2. Ученые всего мира в своих работах используют научные методы исследования.

3. Ученые со времен Г. Галилея в своих исследованиях применяли научный подход к предмету исследования.

4. Началом эры современной науки считается период эпохи Возрождения.

5. Одним из основных элементов научного исследования является эксперимент

6. Объективность подхода в исследовании играет важнейшую роль в обеспечении научного прогресса.

7. Объективность научного подхода указывает на то, что исследователь не фальсифицирует результаты исследования в угоду каким-либо предвзятым суждениям.

8. Одним из основных направлений науки является развитие фундаментальных законов, которые в дальнейшем становятся частью нашего понимания естественного мира.

9. Взаимодействие индуктивного и дедуктивного методов в научном исследовании является неотъемлемой частью научного подхода к изучению проблемы.

10. Наука является одной из важнейших составляющих прогресса человечества.

Exercise 10

Используя данные выражения, обсудите в парах развитие науки на современном этапе:

Science and technology (наука и техника); natural sciences (естественные науки); humanities (гуманитарные науки); management science (наука управления); graph method (графический метод); natural current method (метод естественного тока); inductive method of electrical research (индуктивный метод электрических исследований); object of study (объект изучения); industrial object (промышленный объект); admissible hypothesis (допустимая гипотеза).

Exercise 11

Прочитайте и переведите текст “Fields of science”

Fields of Science

The Pythagorean scholars distinguished only four sciences: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. By the time of Aristotle, however, other fields could also be recognized: mechanics, optics, physics, meteorology, zoology, and botany. Chemistry remained outside the mainstream of science until the time of Robert Boyle in the 17th century, and geology achieved the status of a science only in the 18th century. By that time the study of heat, magnetism, and electricity had become part of physics. During the 19th century scientists finally recognized that pure mathematics differs from the other sciences in that it is logic of relations and does not depend for its structure on the laws of nature. The pure natural sciences are generally divided into two classes: the physical sciences and the biological, or life, sciences. The principal branches among the former are physics, astronomy, chemistry, and geology; the chief biological sciences are botany and zoology. The physical sciences can be subdivided to identify such fields as mechanics, physical chemistry, and meteorology; physiology, embryology, anatomy, genetics, and ecology are subdivisions of the biological sciences. All classifications of the pure sciences, however, are illogical. In the formulations of general scientific laws, interlocking relationships among the sciences are recognized. These interrelationships are considered responsible for much of the progress today in several specialized fields of research, such as molecular biology and genetics. Several interdisciplinary sciences, such as biochemistry, biophysics, biomathematics, and bioengineering, have arisen, in which life processes are explained physicochemically. Cooperation of biologists with physicists led to the invention of the electron microscope, through which viruses and gene mutations can be studied. The application of these interdisciplinary methods is also expected to produce significant advances in the fields of social sciences and behavioral sciences. The applied sciences include such fields as aeronautics, electronics, engineering, and metallurgy, which are applied physical sciences, and agronomy and medicine, which are applied biological sciences. In this case also, overlapping branches must be recognized. The cooperation, for example, between iatrophysics (a branch of medical research based on principles of physics) and bioengineering resulted in the development of the heart-lung machine used in open-heart surgery and in the design of artificial organs such as heart chambers and valves, kidneys, blood vessels, and inner-ear bones. Advances such as these are generally the result of research by teams of specialists representing different sciences, both pure and applied. This interrelationship between theory and practice is as important to the growth of science today as it was at the time of Galileo.