экз теор фонетика 12-23, 34, 35, 36, 39, 45

12.Notation.

It is interesting at this stage to consider the system of phonetic notations which is generally termed as “transcription”. Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech sounds. The symbolization of sounds naturally differs according to whether the aim is to indicate the phoneme, i.e. a functional as whole, or to reflect the modifications of its allophones as well.The International Phonetic Association (IPA) has given accepted values to an inventory of symbols, mainly alphabetic but with additions. “Agreed values” means, for example that the symbol [q] represents a lenis backlingual stop as in gate and not the orthographic “g” of gin,which is notated as [d3].The first type of notation, the broad or broad or phonemic transcription, provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language. The second type, the narrow or allophonic transcription, suggests special symbols including some information about articulatory activity of particular allophonic features. The road transcription is mainly used fir practical expedience, the narrow type serves the purposes of research work.

і], -[e] – [ae], [ ] – [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ] – [ ]. This way of notation disguises the qualitative difference between the vowels [ ] and [і:], [ ] and [ ], [ ] and [ ], and [ з:] though nowadays most phoneticians agree that vowel length is not a distinctive feature of vowel, but is rather dependent upon the phonetic context, that is it is definitely redundant. For example, example, in such word pairs as hit – neat, cock, pull – pool the opposed vowels are approximately of the same length, the only difference between them lies in their quality which is therefore relevant. More than that. Phonetic transcription is a good basis for teaching the pronunciation of a foreign of a foreign language, being a powerful visual aid. To achieve good results it is necessary that the learners of English should associate each relevant difference between the phonemes with special symbols, that is each phoneme should have a special symbol. If not, the difference between the pairs of sounds above may be wrongly associated with vowel length which is non-distinctive (redundant) in modern English.

І ], [і:], [ е ], [ае ], [ а: ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ и ], [ з: ], [ ], Being a good visual aid this way of notation can be strongly recommended for teaching the pronunciation of English to any audience. But phonemic representation is rather imprecise as it gives too little information about the actual speech sounds. It incorporates only as much phonetic information as if is necessary to distinguish the functioning of sounds in a language. The narrow or phonetic transcription incorporates as much more phonetic information as the phonetician desires, or as he can distinguish. It provides special symbols to denote not only the phoneme as a language unit but also its allophonic modifications. The symbol [h] for instance indicates aspirated articulation, cf. [kheIt] – [skeIt]. This type of transcription is mainly used in research work. Sometimes, however, if may be helpful, at least in the early stages, to include symbols representing allophones in order to emphasize a particular feature of an allophonic modification, e.g. in the pronunciation of the consonant [f] it is often necessary to insist upon the soft and hard varieties of it by using not only [f] but also [f] (the indication of the hard variant).

13.Methods of phonetic analysisThe aim of the phonological analysis is, firstly, to determine which differences of sounds are phonemic and which are non-phonemic and, secondly, to find the inventory of phonemes of the language.As it was mentioned above, phonology has its own methods of investigation. Semantic method is applied for phonological analysis of both unknown languages and languages already described. The method is based on a phonemic rule that phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes when opposed to one another. It consists in systematic substitution of one sound for another in order to find out in which cases where the phonetic context remains the same such replacing leads to a change of meaning. This procedure is called the commutation test. It consists in finding minimal pairs of words and their grammatical forms. For example:  pen [pen]; Ben [ben]; gain [gain]; cane [kain]; ten [ten]; den[den]  American descriptivists, whose most zealous representative is, perhaps, Zellig Harris, declare the distributional method to be the only scientific one. At the same time they declare the semantic method unscientific because they consider recourse to meaning external to linguistics. Descriptivists consider the phonemic analysis in terms of distribution. They consider it possible to discover the phonemes of a language by the rigid application of a distributional method. It means to group all the sounds pronounced by native speakers into phoneme according to the laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution.there are three types of distribution: contrastive, complementary and free variation.

14.  The system of phonemes. & 15 articulatory and physiological classification of consonants/

All English phonemes can be divided into consonants phonemes and vowels phonemes. The following 20 vowel phonemes are distinguished in BBC English (RP): [i:, a:, o:, u:, з:, i, e,; ei, ai, oi]. Principles of classification provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions:1.   Stability of articulation1.1. monophthongs vs. diphthongsbit - bait, kit -kite, John - join, debt — doubt1.2. diphthongs vs. diphthongoids bile - bee, boat — boot, raid - rude  2.   Position of the tongue 2.1. horizontal movement of the tongue a) front vs. Central cab — curb, bed — bird b) back vs. Central    pull –  pearl, cart - curl, call - curl 2.2. vertical movement of the tongue : -close (high) vs. Mid -open (mid)bid — bird, week - work open (low) vs. mid-open (mid) lark - lurk, call — curl, bard-bird  3.  Position of the lips rounded vs. unrounded don — darn, pot - part  The phonological analysis of English consonant sounds helps to distinguish 24 phonemes.. Principles of classification suggested by Russian phoneticians provide the basis for establishing of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of English consonants: 1.Degree of noise: bake - make, veal - wheel                                             2. Place of articulation labial vs. lingual: pain — cane lingual vs. glottal: foam — home, care — hair, Tim - him 3.Manner of articulation 3.1 occlusive vs. constrictive pine -fine, bat - that, bee – thee 1.constrictive vs. affricates fare — chair, fail –jail 2. constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral same – shame  4. Work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation 4.1 voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis pen — Ben, ten - den, coat - goal  5. Position of the soft palate 5.1 oral vs. nasal pit — pin, seek — seen  By the degree of noise English consonants are devided into two general kinds: a) noise consonants; b) sonorants. If it is sound in which noise prevails over tone it is noise consonant (ex. p, b, fv, s, z, ð, θ ) Sonorants are sounds that differ greatly from other consonants. This is due to the fact that in their production the air passage between the two organs of speech is fairly wide, that is much wider than in the production of noise consonants. As a result, the auditory effect is tone, not noise (m, n, w, r, ŋ, l).  According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of 3 groups: Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth.  Occlusive noise consonants ( stops ) – the breath is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then it is released with an explosion ( plosive ).  Occlusive sonorants ( nasal ) – made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose.  2.Constrictive consonants apw the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted. Constrictive noise consonants ( fricatives ) – apw the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction. Constrictive sonorants ( oral ) – made with an incomplete obstruction but with a rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise.  3. Occlusive – constrictive consonants ( affricates ) – noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. labial, lingual, glottal consonantsAccording to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation (the place of obstruction) consonants are classified into: 1) labial, 2) lingual, 3) glottal. Labial consonants are subdivided into: a) bilabial and b) labio-dental. Bilabial consonants are produced with both lips. They are the /p, b, m, w/. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are /f, v/. Lingual consonants are subdivided into: a) forelingual, b) mediolingual and c) backlingual.Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. According to the position of the tip of the tongue they may be: apical articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge /t, d, s, z, n, l/ and cacuminal /r/. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: (1) interdental / /, (2) alveolar /t, d, s, n, l/, (3) post-alveolar /r/, (4) palato-alveolar / /Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants are articulated with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate /j/.Backlingual consonants are also called velar, they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate “velum”  /k, g, /The glottal consonant /h/ is articulated in the glottis.

16. Articulatory and physiological classification of vowels.

Vowels are voiced sounds in forming which the airstream passes freely without any obstruction through the larynx the mouth cavity make the vocal cords vibrate. Vowels are classified:in the stability of articulation: (1.l) monothongs - are vowels the articulation of which doesn’t change. The quality of such v-ls is relatively pare [i,e,a:, o:,);, u,3:, ?] ;(1.2) diphthongs in the pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of  speech slide from one v-l position to another within one  syllable. The nuclear of diphthongs is strong distinct the glide is very weak [ei, эi, au, ?u, є?, u?]. (1.3) In the pronunciation of diphthongs the articulation changes just a little bit. But the difference between the nuclear the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs; [i:, u:].  The tongue position: horizontal movement of the tongue.  When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the  front part of it is raised up to the hard palate a front v-1 is pronounced [i:, e]. When the front of the tongue is raised  towards to the back part of the lard palate the vowel is called central (or mixed) [ ]. When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and raised up to the soft palate a back  vowel is pronounced [a:, э, э:, u:]. Vertical movement high (or closed) vowels: [i:, u, u:], open (low) vowels [a:, o;].  The lip position. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called unrounded.When the lips more or less  round they called rounded [u;u]. Vowel length. All Eng. Monophthongs are   divided into  long[I:, a: u:,?:] and short[I e u a]. Diphthongs and diphthongoids.According to Russian scholars vowels are subdivided into: a) monophthongs (the tongue position is stable); b) diphthongs (it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another); c) diphthongoids (an intermediate case, when the change in the position is fairly weak). diphthong, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. In most dialects of English, the words eye, boy, and cow contain examples of diphthongs.Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where only one vowel sound is heard in a syllable. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables, as in, for example, the English word re-elect, the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds ı – [eı, aı, ɔı]; u – [au, ǝu]; ǝ – [ıǝ, ɛǝ, ɔǝ, uǝ].Дифтонгоид - это ударный неоднородный гласный, имеющий в начале или конце призвук другого гласного, артикуляционно-близкого к основному, ударному. [i:, u:]

17. Phonemic status of the neutral vowel «schwa».

The phonological analysis marks the opposition of the neutral sound /ə/ to other unstressed vowels, the most common among them is /ı/. The neutral sound /ə/ is phonologically opposed to the phoneme /ı/ with its own distinctive features capable of differentiating the meaning of lexical units. E.g.: officers /ə/ – offices /ı/; accept /ə/ – except /ı/.The problem of the phonemic status of the neutral sound /ə/ has a morphological aspect. In English there’re numerous alliterations of vowels in stressed & unstressed syllables between the derivatives of the same root or different grammatical forms of the same word. Cf.:/æ/ – /ə/ man – sportsman;/∆/ – /ə/ some – wholesome;/ס/ – /ə/ combine n – combine v;/eı/ – /ə/ operation – operative;/зυ/ – /ə/ post – postpone.

18. Stages in articulation of individual sounds and ways of joining the sounds in connected speech.

Three stages in the articulation of a speech sound. Three stages of articulation of the sounds: [b], [], [æ], [u:]. Every speech sound pronounced in isolation has three stages of articulation. They are the on-glide, or the initial stage, the retention stage, or the medial stage, and the off-glide, or the final stage. The on-glide stage or the beginning of a sound, is the stage during which the organs of speech move away from a neutral position to take up the position necessary for the pronunciation of a consonant or a vowel. The on-glide produces no audible sound. The retention stage or the middle of a sound, is the stage during which the organs of speech are kept for some time either in the same position necessary to pronounce the sound or move from one position to another. For the retention stage of a stop consonant the term stop-stage may also be used. The off-glide stage or the end of a sound, is the stage during which the organs of speech move away to a neutral position. The off-glide of most sounds is not audible, the exception being plosives whose off-glide produces the sound of plosion before a vowel and in a word-final position before a pause.

19. Coarticulation is the way the brain organizes sequences of vowels and consonants, interweaving the individual movements necessary for each into one smooth whole. In fact, the process applies to all body movement, not just speech, and is part of how homo sapiens works.

It takes about a fifth of a second to produce a syllable, or about  a fifteenth or twentieth of a second for each consonant or vowel.Now it turns out it takes a little longer than that to move the lips, tongue and jaw for each vowel and consonant. So what is happening?The brain coordinates these individual articulator movements in a very ingenious way, such that movements needed for adjacent vowels and consonants are produced simultaneously.This results in speech being produced very smoothly.At the same time it spreads out acoustic information about a vowel or consonant and helps a listener understand what is being said.Speech coarticulation is thus also a very important part of the special code that enables us to speak at five syllables a second.

20, 21, 22, 23. Assimilation,Accommodation, elision, insertion. The modifications are observed both within words and word boundaries. There are the following types of modification: assimilation, accommodation, reduction, elision, and inserting.The modifications of vowels in a speech chain are traced in the following directions: they are either quantitative or qualitative or both. These changes of vowels in connected speech are determined by a number of factors such as the position of the vowels in the word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm etc. MODIFICATION OF VOWELS  1. Reduction is a quantitative or qualitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions: board- blackboard, man- postman. 1.1. Quantitative 1.2. Qualitative 2. Accommodation -Modification in the articulation of a segment for the purpose of easing a transition to a following segment, as when English /k/ is fronted before a front vowel or glide (key, back yard), or when /t/ shifts from alveolar to dental before a dental fricative (eighth) 2.2 Positional length of vowels: knee - need – neat 2.3.Nasalization of vowels: preceded or followed by [n, m]: never, then, men MODIFICATIONS OF CONSONANTS 1. Assimilation 1.1. Place of articulation • t, d > dental before [ð, θ]: eighth, • t, d > post-alveolar before [r]: tree, dream • s, z > post-alveolar before [∫]: this shop • t, d > affricates before [j]: graduate, could you • m > labio-dental before [f]: symphony • n > dental before [θ]: seventh • n > velar before [k]: thank 1.2. Manner of articulation• loss of plosion: glad to see you, great trouble • nasal plosion: sudden, at night, let me see • lateral plosion: settle, at last 1.3. Work of the vocal cords• voiced > voiceless: newspaper, gooseberry has, is, does > [s]; of, have > [f] 1.4. Degree of noise• sonorants > are partially devoiced after [p, t, k, s] 2. Accommodation 2.1. Lip position• consonant + back vowel: pool, rude, who (rounded)• consonant + front vowel: tea, sit, keep (spread) 3. Elision is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes, sounds may be elided for euphonic effect.The elided form of a word or phrase may become a standard alternative for the full form, if used often enough. In English, this is called a contraction, such as can't from cannot. Contraction differs from elision in that contractions are set forms that have morphologized, but elisions are not.  3.1. Loss of [h] in personal and possessive pronouns and the forms of the auxiliary verb have.3.2. [l] lends to be lost when preceded by [o:]: always, already, all right3.3. In cluster of consonants: next day, just one. mashed potatoes 4. Inserting of sounds 4.1. Linking [r] (potential pronunciation of [r]): car owner 4.2. Intrusive [r]: [r] 

34. Intonation is a complex unity of sentence stress, rhythm, tempo, speech melody and voice timbre. Each syllable in a sense group is pronounced on a certain pitch level and bears a definite amount of loudness. Intonation patterns serve to actualize sense groups. Intonation is a language universal. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complex. In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups. Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts:the prehead,the head (the 1st accented syllable),the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.),the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the intonation pattern. the tail – conveys no particular information The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing different meanings and attitudes.   The functions of intonation:constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts)delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups).distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:→ to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively distinctive function)→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function)→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be important for the meaning).→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an utterance. The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest of an utterance.

35. In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups. Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts:the prehead -The prehead consists of the unstressed syllables at the beginning of the TU.; The prehead is usually LOW. But it can be HIGH in front of a low stressed syllable.the head (the 1st accented syllable) -HIGH HEADS are shown by using the normal stress symbol  in front of the stressed syllables of the head. High heads tend to fall on each stress: each stress is lower than the one before it, but all the weak syllables following the stress are on the same level as the stress, LOW HEADS are shown by using a lowered stress symbol  in front of the stressed syllables of the head. Low heads tend to start low and stay low.the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.),the nucleus (the last acc.syll., Fall,Rise,Fall-rise,Rise-fall,Level) – is the most important part of the intonation pattern. the tail – conveys no particular information. The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing different meanings and attitudes. 

36. Pitch is the degree of height of our voice in speech. Normal speaking pitch is at midlevel. Intonation is formed by certain pitch changes, characteristic of a given language, for example, falling intonation is formed by pitch changes from high to low, and rising intonation is formed by pitch changes from low to high. Pitch as a component of intonation can be investigated by intonograph.

39. Rhythm. Rhythm is a regular occurrence of stressed syllables. When several stressed syllables come close together (Ann came too late) the speed of the utterance is noticeably slower, than in the case when there’s some unstressed syllables between the stressed ones. Then unstressed syllables flow away more rapidly than the stressed ones. If the number of unstressed syllables in one interval is greater than in the neighbouring one, they are pronounced more quickly to make the intervals more or less regular (\Ann could have\ bought you some other book – the 2^nd interval is pronounced more rapidly).In connected speech under the influence of rhythm many words can change their stressing. Such are words with 2 strong stresses. Under definite rhythmical conditions one of the 2 stresses becomes weaker. If such a word, used in the final position, is preceded by a stressed syllable, its first stress becomes weaker. E.g.: She lives down↓stairs. A ↓downstairs room

45.Welsh EnglishSome of the features of Welsh English are:- Distinctive intonational differences, including a rising intonation at the end of statements - sometimes characterised as "sing-song".- Lengthening of all vowels is common in strong valleys accents.- The vowel /ʌ/ in English words such as "bus" is pronounced [ə], instead of the [ɐ] used in England. Thus, in Welsh English, the vowel sounds in "bus" and "the" are identical.- In some areas, pronouncing [ɪ] as [ɛ] e.g. "edit" and "benefit" as if spelt "edet" and "benefet".- A strong tendency (shared with Scottish English) towards using an alveolar trill [r] (a 'rolled r') in place of an approximant [ɹ] (the r used in most accents in England).- Yod-dropping is rare after any consonant so rude and rood, threw and through, chews and choose, for example, are usually distinct.Scottish English.Phonological characteristic of Scottish English:- Scottish English is a rhotic accent, meaning /r/ is pronounced in the syllable coda. While other dialects have merged /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ʌ/ before /r/, Scottish English makes a distinction between the vowels in herd, bird, and curd. Many varieties contrast /o/ and /ɔ/ before /r/ so that hoarse and horse are pronounced differently. /or/ and /ur/ are contrasted so that shore and sure are pronounced differently, as are pour and poor.- There is a distinction between /w/ and /hw/ in word pairs such as witch and which.- The phoneme /x/ is common in names and in SSE's many Gaelic and Scots borrowings, so much so that it is often taught to incomers, particularly for "ch" in loch. Some Scottish speakers use it in words of Greek origin as well, such as technical, patriarch, etc. The pronunciation of these words in the original Greek would support this.- /l/ is usually velarized- Vowel length is generally regarded as non-phonemic. Certain vowels (such as /i/, /u/, and /æ/ are generally long but are shortened before nasals and voiced plosives. However, this does not occur across morpheme boundaries so that crude contrasts with crewed, need with kneed and side with sighed.- Scottish English has no /ʊ/, instead transferring Scots /u/. Thus pull and pool are homophones.- Cot and caught are not differentiated in most Central Scottish varieties, as they are in some other varieties.- In most varieties, there is no /æ/:/ɑː/ distinction; therefore, bath, trap, and palm have the same vowel.- The happY vowel is most commonly /e/ (as in face), but may also be /ɪ/ (as in kit) or /i/ (as in fleece).- /θs/ is often used in plural nouns where southern English has /ðz/ (baths, youths, etc); with and booth are pronounced with θ.Irish EnglishHiberno-English – also known as Irish English.Hiberno-English retains many phonemic differentiations.- With some local exceptions, /r/ occurs postvocally, making most Hiberno-English dialects rhotic- /t/ is not usually pronounced as a plosive where it does not occur word-initially; instead, it is pronounced as a slit fricative- The distinction between w /w/ and wh /hw/, as in wine vs. whine, is preserved.-/ɒː/ and /o/ in horse and hoarse is preserved, though not usually in Dublin or Belfast.- A distinction between [ɛɹ]-[ʌɹ]-[ʌɹ] in herd-bird-curd may be found.- /l/ is never velarised- The /aɪ/ in "night" may be pronounced in a wide variety of ways, e.g. [əɪ], [ɔɪ], [ʌɪ] and [ɑɪ], the latter two being the most common in middle class speech, the former two, in popular speech.- The /ɔɪ/ in "boy" may be pronounced [ɑːɪ] (i.e. the vowel of thought plus a y) in conservative accents- In some varieties, speakers make no distinction between the [ʌ] in putt and the [ʊ] in put, pronouncing both as the latter- Any and many are pronounced to rhyme with nanny, Danny by very many speakers, i.e. with /a/- /eɪ/ often becomes /ɛ/ in words such as gave and came (becoming "gev" and "kem")- /dj/ becomes /dʒ/, e.g. dew/due, duke and duty sound like "Jew", "jook" and "jooty"./tj/ becomes /tʃ/, e.g. tube is "choob", tune is "choon"/nj/ becomes /n/, e.g. new becomes "noo".The following show neither dropping nor coalescence:+ /kj/; + /hj/; + /mj/ Dublin English

As with London and New York, Dublin has a number of dialects which differ significantly based on class and age group. These are roughly divided into three categories: "local Dublin", or the broad-working class dialect (sometimes referred to as the "working-class", "inner-Dublin" or "knacker" accent); "mainstream Dublin", the typical accent spoken by middle-class or suburban speakers; and "new Dublin", an accent among younger people (born after 1970).