- •Acknowledgements
- •Participants
- •Secretariat
- •Contributors
- •Reviewers
- •PREFACE
- •THE ROLE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN NUTRITION
- •Description
- •Physiology
- •Carbohydrates in the diet
- •Energy balance
- •Physical activity
- •Carbohydrate and behaviour
- •Carbohydrate through the life cycle
- •DIETARY CARBOHYDRATE AND DISEASE
- •Obesity
- •Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
- •Cardiovascular disease
- •Cancer
- •Gastrointestinal diseases other than cancer
- •Dental caries
- •Other conditions
- •THE ROLE OF THE GLYCEMIC INDEX IN FOOD CHOICE
- •Definition of glycemic index (GI)
- •Factors influencing the blood glucose responses of foods
- •Calculation of glycemic index of meals or diets
- •Practical application of the glycemic index
- •Physiologic and therapeutic effects of low glycemic index foods
- •GOALS AND GUIDELINES FOR CARBOHYDRATE
- •Rationale and framework
- •Principles of carbohydrate food choices
- •Carbohydrate nutrient and food goals
- •Translation from carbohydrate nutrients to foods
- •Considerations for target audiences
- •RECOMMENDATIONS
- •REFERENCES
- •Annex 1
- •References cited in the foregoing table
- •Annex 2
- •INTRODUCTION
- •DIETARY CARBOHYDRATE COMPOSITION
- •DIETARY FIBRE AND RESISTANT STARCH ANALYSIS
- •EFFECTS OF FOOD PROCESSING ON DIETARY
- •PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DIETARY FIBRE
- •CARBOHYDRATE FOOD INTAKE AND
- •SUGAR AND HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
- •CARBOHYDRATES AND NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
- •REFERENCES
FAO/WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
i |
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements |
v |
Participants |
vii |
Secretariat |
ix |
Contributors |
xi |
Reviewers |
xiii |
Preface |
xv |
Chapter 1 |
|
The Role of Carbohydrates in Nutrition |
1 |
Description |
1 |
Physiology |
10 |
Chapter 2 |
|
The Role of Carbohydrates in Maintenance of Health |
15 |
Carbohydrates in the diet |
15 |
Energy balance |
15 |
Physical activity |
16 |
Carbohydrate and behaviour |
16 |
Carbohydrate through the life cycle |
17 |
Chapter 3 |
|
Dietary Carbohydrate and Disease |
19 |
Obesity |
19 |
Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus |
19 |
Cardiovascular disease |
21 |
Cancer |
22 |
Gastrointestinal diseases other than cancer |
22 |
Dental caries |
22 |
Other conditions |
23 |
Chapter 4 |
|
The Role of the Glycemic Index in Food Choice |
25 |
Definition of the glycemic index |
25 |
Factors influencing the blood glucose responses of foods |
28 |
Calculation of glycemic index of meals or diets |
28 |
Practical application of the glycemic index |
29 |
Physiologic and therapeutic effects of low glycemic index foods |
29 |
ii |
FAO//WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
Chapter 5 |
|
Goals and Guidelines for Carbohydrate Food Choices |
31 |
Rationale and framework |
31 |
Principles of carbohydrate food choices |
31 |
Carbohydrate nutrient and food goals |
32 |
Translation from carbohydrate nutrients to foods |
33 |
Considerations for target audiences |
33 |
Chapter 6 |
|
Recommendations |
35 |
References |
39 |
TABLES
1. |
Sample blood glucose responses to the ingestion of 50 g carbohydrate |
26 |
2. |
Glucose response from capillary blood and venous plasma |
26 |
3. |
Food factors influencing glycemic responses |
28 |
4. |
Calculation of the glycemic index of meals |
29 |
FIGURES
1. |
The major dietary carbohydrates |
1 |
2. |
Sample calculations of incremental area under the curve |
27 |
FAO/WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
iii |
|
ANNEXES |
|
1. |
Intake of Carbohydrate and Its Components |
45 |
|
References |
48 |
2. |
Background Information |
51 |
|
Introduction |
53 |
|
Global Trends in Production and Consumption |
|
|
Carbohydrate Foods |
55 |
|
Dietary Carbohydrate Composition |
67 |
|
Dietary Fibre and Resistant Starch Analysis |
75 |
|
Effects of Food Processing on Dietary Carbohydrates |
79 |
|
Digestion, Absorption and Energy Value of Carbohydrates |
83 |
|
Physiological Effects of Dietary Fibre |
89 |
|
Carbohydrate Food Intake and Energy Balance |
97 |
|
The Role of Carbohydrates in Exercise and Physical Performance |
105 |
|
Sugar and Human Behaviour |
111 |
|
Carbohydrates and Non-communicable Diseases |
115 |
|
References |
127 |
|
|
TABLES |
1. |
Nutritive value of major cereals |
58 |
2. |
Nutritive value of root crops |
59 |
3. |
Nutritive value of selected pulses, nuts, bananas and plantains |
60 |
4.Energy from carbohydrate by food group as a percentage of
|
total carbohydrate - food balance data 1964 and 1994 |
63 |
5. |
The most important carbohydrates in foods |
67 |
6. |
Some properties of whole granular starches |
70 |
7. |
Types of modified starches |
72 |
iv |
FAO//WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
TABLES
8. |
Glycemic index of selected foods |
86 |
9. |
Colonic fermentability of dietary fibres in humans |
90 |
10. |
Some dietary recommendations for diabetes |
117 |
11. |
Effect of food carbohydrates on cardiovascular risk factors |
119 |
12. |
Summary of a review of 58 studies of diet and colorectal cancer risk |
122 |
FIGURES
1. |
Major sources of carbohydrate - world production 1961-1994 |
56 |
2. |
Starchy staples providing the highest proportion of food energy 1990-1992 |
61 |
3. |
Energy from the dominant starchy staples, 1990-1992 |
62 |
4.Analysis of total dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre and soluble
|
dietary fibre by AOAC method 32.1.17 |
76 |
5. |
Method for the determination of resistant starch |
78 |
6. |
Mechanisms of action of dietary fibre on colonic transit time |
94 |
7. |
Muscle glycogen concentrations before and after constant |
|
|
load cycling to exhaustion, following three dietary conditions |
106 |
8. |
Cycling time to exhaustion at constant load under three dietary conditions |
107 |
FAO/WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
v |
Acknowledgements
FAO and WHO express their gratitude for the contribution of the experts who participated in this consultation and contributed to the development of the report. The organizations are also thankful for those participating as well as non-participating experts who have prepared draft background papers in the preparatory process for the consultation. Extracts of those papers have been used in creating the background information included in Annex 2 of the report. Special appreciation is offered to Dr. David Lineback and Dr. Ruth Oniang’o, who served as the Chairman and ViceChair, respectively, and to Drs. Thomas Wolever and Mark Wahlqvist who jointly undertook the demanding task of acting as Rapporteurs for the Consultation.
vi |
FAO//WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
|
Participants |
Nils-Georg ASP |
Seyed Masoud KIMIAGAR |
Chemical Centre |
National Nutrition Institute |
University of Lund |
Dean, Nutrition and Food Science College |
P.O. Box 124 |
P.O. Box 19395/4741 |
22100 Lund |
Tehran |
Sweden |
Islamic Republic of Iran |
John CUMMINGS |
Shuhei KOBAYASHI |
MRC Dunn Clinical Nutrition Centre |
The National Institute of Health and |
Hills Road |
Nutrition |
Cambridge CB2 2DH |
1-23-1, Toyama, Shinjuku-ku |
United Kingdom |
Tokyo 162 |
|
Japan |
Erik Osvaldo DIAZ BUSTOS |
David LINEBACK (Chairman) |
Department of Nutrition |
College of Agriculture |
Faculty of Medicine |
University of Idaho, |
University of Chile |
Moscow, Idaho, 83844-2331 |
Casilla 138-11 |
USA |
Santiago 11 |
|
Chile |
|
Mark DREHER |
James I. MANN |
Nutrition and Scientific Regulatory Affairs |
Professor of Human Nutrition |
Nabisco, Inc. |
University of Otago |
Technology Center |
P.O.Box 56 |
200 DeForest Avenue |
Dunedin |
East Hanover, NJ 07936-1944 |
New Zealand |
USA |
|
Mukund GURJAR |
Ruth ONIANG'O (Vice-Chair) |
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology |
Director |
Council of Scientific and Industrial |
Board of Postgraduate Studies |
Research, Government of India |
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture |
Hyderabad 500 007 |
and Technology |
India |
P.O. Box 62000 |
|
Nairobi |
|
Kenya |
FAO/WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
vii |
James HILL |
Alison STEPHEN |
Center of Human Nutrition |
Division of Nutrition and Dietetics |
University of Colorado Health Science |
College of Pharmacy and Nutrition |
Center |
University of Saskatchewan |
4200 East Ninth Avenue |
110 Science Place |
Campus Box C225 |
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5C9 |
Denver, Colorado 80262 |
Canada |
USA |
|
Kraisid TONTISIRIN |
Mark WAHLQVIST |
Institute of Nutrition |
Monash Medical Centre |
Mahidol University |
Monash University |
Salaya, Phutthamonthon 4 |
246 Clayton Road |
Nakhon Pathom 73170 |
Clayton, Melbourne |
Thailand |
Victoria 3168 |
|
Australia |
Hester Hendrina VORSTER |
Thomas WOLEVER |
Potchefstroom University for Christian |
Department of Nutritional Sciences |
Higher Education |
University of Toronto |
Dept. of Nutrition and Family Ecology |
150 College Street |
Private Bag X6001 |
Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3E2 |
Potchefstroom 2520 |
Canada |
Republic of South Africa |
|
viii |
FAO//WHO expert consultation on carbohydrates in human nutrition |
Secretariat
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE |
WORLD HEALTH |
ORGANIZATION OF THE |
ORGANIZATION |
UNITED NATIONS |
|
Guy NANTEL |
Ratko BUZINA |
Senior Officer |
Consultant, Nutrition |
Nutrition Planning, Assessment and |
WHO, Geneva |
Evaluation Service |
|
Food and Nutrition Division |
Graeme CLUGSTON |
FAO, Rome |
Director, Nutrition Programme |
|
WHO, Geneva. |
John R. WEATHERWAX |
|
Consultant to FAO, Rome. |
Nicolai KHALTAEV |
|
Responsible Officer |
|
Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases. |
|
WHO, Geneva |