Graphon

1. Graphon. It supplies information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical and emotional condition, etc. show the physical defects of the speakers - the stumbling of one and the lisping of the other. Graphon individualizes the character’s speech. It adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same time graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of the informality of the speech act. Intensity of speech (often in commands) is transmitted through multiplication of a graphon or through capitalization of the word: “Alllll aboarrrrrd”, “Help! Help! HELP!”

2. Litotes. Litotes have a two-component structure. In it two negations are joined in order to give a positive evaluation, but the positive effect is weakened. Some lack of the speaker’s confidence in his statement is implied: “not unkindly” = “kindly”. The first component of a litotes is always the negative particle “not”. The second is always negative in semantics. But it varies in form from a negatively affixed word to a negative phrase. weaken the effect of the utterance. But litotes has its specific “double negative” structure and it weakened only the positive evaluation.

3. Metaphor. Metaphor is transference of names which is based on associated likeness between two objects: ”pancake”, “ball”, “volcano” = “sun”; By its structure metaphor can be simple or sustained: Metaphor is expressive because the images of both objects possess similar feature: one of the objects is actually named, and the second supplies its own so-called legal name. This is the name transference which is based on the similarity of one feature. This feature is common to two different entities. The wider is the gap between the associated objects, the more striking and unexpected, the more expressive is the metaphor. If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects we deal with personification. Personification is a trope by which inanimate object or idea is given human characteristic:“the face of London”; “the pain of the ocean”.

4. Metonymy – transference of a name of one object to another object. It is based upon the principle of contiguity (nearness) of the two objects of phenomena. Types: lexical – a source of creating new words and meanings (table’s leg, the press(instead of people writing for press)) contextual – the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another (This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel.)Linda gave her heart to that man.

5. Irony – the SD which is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity in speech. Function: conveys irritation, dissatisfaction, regret, disappointment, displeasure. Types: verbal – it is possible to indicate the exact word which is used ironically; sustained – the effect of irony is created by a number of statements or by the whole text. Cutting off chickens’ heаds! Such a fascinating process to watch!

6. Pun – (also called paronomasia) is a form of word play that suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic, or metaphorical language.Why are you so pale? Have you seen any spirits? Or took any?

7. Antonomasia. is a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa. : “He is the Napoleon of crime.” “Mr.Smith”, “Mr.Brown”. Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (Dr.Fresh Air) or by phrases (Mr.What’s-his-name).

8. Epithet. is a word or phrase which expresses some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. It serves to emphasize a certain property or feature. Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing and imaginary.) ”the smiling sun”, “the sleepless pillow”

9. Hyperbole is a SD in which emphasis is achieved through evident exaggeration. Like epithet it relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning.1. I would gladly see this film a hundred times.

10. Oxymoron. is a SD which consists in the use of an epithet or attributive phrase in contradiction to the noun which it denotes2. “silence was louder than the thunder”.3. “awfully pretty”.

11.Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words "like", "as", "as though", "as like", "such as", "as...as", etc. In a simile two objects are compared on the grounds of similarity of some quality. This feature which is called foundation of a simile, may be explicitly mentioned as in:

12.Periphrasis is a very peculiar stylistic device which basically consists of using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one, i.e. of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word. Depending on the mechanism of this substitution, periphrases are classified into figurative (metonymic and metaphoric), and logical. The main function of periphrases is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object.The often repeated periphrases become trite and serve as universally accepted periphrastic synonyms: "the gentle / soft / weak sex" (women);

13. Parallel Construction (Parallelism) – a stylistic device of producing two or more syntactic structures according to the same syntactic pattern.Communicative function: polyfunctional: creates rhythm (poetry), makes speech persuasive (public and oratory styles)underlines the importance of information (everyday speech)E.g. "There were, ..., real silver spoons to stir he tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in. " (Dickens)

14. Inversion – intentional changing word-order of the initial sentence model. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional coloring to the surface meaning of the utterance. To the disco Hilde went. Little chances Benny had.

15. Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but dif­ferent semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, being on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred.Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when the two meanings clash. By making the two meanings conspicuous in this particular way, each of them stands out clearly. The structure of zeugma may present variations from the patterns given above. Thus in the sentence

16. Climax - type of semantically complicated parallelism, in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit: "Better to borrow, better to beg, better to die!" (D.), in climax we deal with strings of synonyms or at least semantically related words belonging to the same thematic group.

17. Antonomasia is a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa, i.e. a SD, in which the nominal meaning of a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning acquires the new - nominal — component. "He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary, shortly after she arrived, something...." Another type of antonomasia we meet when a common noun serves as an individualizing name, I'm referring to are Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh Air."Still another type of antonomasia is presented by the so-called "speaking names" - names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in "Dr. Fresh Air") or phrases (as in "Mr. What's-his name"). Common nouns used in the second type of antonomasia are in most cases abstract, though there are instances of concrete ones being used too.

18. Detachment When placed in a certain syntactic position, a sentence component may seem formally independent of the word it refers to. Such components of sentence structure are called ‘’detached’’.There was a nice girl there, I liked her name, Linda. Communicative function. Detachments results in logical emphasis of the components of the sentence structure.

19. Understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is.An understatement usually has an ironic effect. “It is a bit cold today,” when the temperature is 5 degrees below freezing.

20. Onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds which imitate natural sounds: wind wailing, sea murmuring, rustling of leaves,: bang = бахнуть,, pop = хлопать. It means that onomatopoeia is not an exact reproduction of natural sounds but a subjective phenomenon.Onomatopoeia is used for emphasis or stylistic effect. It is extensively featured in children's rhymes and poetry in general.