книги / 704
.pdf
Liberalisation of Air
Transport
Liberalisation of Air
Transport
Research Report
2019
The International Transport Forum
The International Transport Forum is an intergovernmental organisation with 59 member countries. It acts as a think tank for transport policy and organises the Annual Summit of transport ministers. ITF is the only global body that covers all transport modes. The ITF is politically autonomous and administratively integrated with the OECD.
The ITF works for transport policies that improve peoples’ lives. Our mission is to foster a deeper understanding of the role of transport in economic growth, environmental sustainability and social inclusion and to raise the public profile of transport policy.
The ITF organises global dialogue for better transport. We act as a platform for discussion and pre-negotiation of policy issues across all transport modes. We analyse trends, share knowledge and promote exchange among transport decision-makers and civil society. The ITF’s Annual Summit is the world’s largest gathering of transport ministers and the leading global platform for dialogue on transport policy.
The Members of the Forum are: Albania, Armenia, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China (People’s Republic of), Croatia, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Republic of Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States.
International Transport Forum 2 rue André Pascal
F-75775 Paris Cedex 16 contact@itf-oecd.org www.itf-oecd.org
ITF Research Reports
ITF Research Reports are in-depth studies of transport policy issues of concern to ITF member countries. They present the findings of dedicated ITF working groups, which bring together international experts over a period of usually one to two years, and are vetted by the ITF Transport Research Committee. Any findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Transport Forum or the OECD. Neither the OECD, ITF nor the authors guarantee the accuracy of any data or other information contained in this publication and accept no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Cite this work as: ITF (2019), Liberalisation of Air Transport, ITF Research Reports, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Acknowledgements
The International Transport Forum (ITF) would like to acknowledge the contributions to this document of the Working Group on the Liberalisation of Air Transport, composed of a cross-section of representatives from ITF member countries, international organisations, industry and researchers as well as experts who were not part of the working group but provided much valued input. Our special thanks go to the authors: chapters one and two were written by Alain Lumbroso, Antigoni Lykotrafiti and Wouter de Wit of the International Transport Forum; chapter three was written by Mike Tretheway and Robert Andriulaitis; chapter four by Guillaume Burghouwt, Pablo Mendes de Leon, and Jaap de Wit; chapter five by Alan Khee-Jin Tan and chapter six by Xiaowen Fu and Tae Hoon Oum who gratefully acknowledge the excellent and substantial support from Dr. Zheng Lei and Ms. Ruowei Chen in writing this chapter.
Country Representatives:
Andreas H. KAVALARIS, Denmark
Brian HEDBERG, United States of America
Didier LEDUR, Belgium
Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure of Germany
Gun Young LEE, South Korea
Jagoda EGELAND, United Kingdom
Keith JONES, Canada
Lasse FRIDSTRØM, Norway
Maarten DE LANGE, Netherlands
Mark BOSLY, United Kingdom
Matti TUPAMAKI, Finland
Megan WALKLET-TIGHE, United States of America
Nabil LAKHEL, Morocco
Niels REMMER, Denmark
Peter IRVINE, United States of America
Philippe AYOUN, France
Signe Marie FINDERUP NIELSEN, Denmark
Sonya VAN DE GEER, New Zealand
Stephen BORTHWICK, Australia
Todd HOMAN, United States of America
Virginie BOUTUEIL, France
Yuichiro KAWASHIMA, Japan
International organisations, industry and research:
Antonia Giulia CARZANIGA, World Trade Organisation
Brian PEARCE, International Air Transport Association
Carole ARNAUD-BATTANDIER, International Federation of Air Line Pilots’ Association Helen MARANO, World Travel and Tourism Council
Jaap DE WIT, University of Amsterdam
James WILTSHIRE, International Air Transport Association
Mike TRETHEWAY, InterVISTAS
Olivia RUGGLES-BRISE, World Travel and Tourism Council
Rob ANDRIULAITIS, InterVISTAS
Tae OUM, University of British Columbia
Toru HASEGAWA, International Civil Aviation Organisation (Chair of the Working Group)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents
Executive summary ........................................................................................................................... |
11 |
What we did.................................................................................................................................. |
11 |
What we found.............................................................................................................................. |
11 |
What we recommend ................................................................................................................... |
12 |
Chapter 1 Policy insights and recommendations ............................................................................... |
13 |
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. |
13 |
Regulation and deregulation of commercial aviation.................................................................... |
14 |
Air traffic rights ............................................................................................................................. |
15 |
Economic consequences of liberalisation ..................................................................................... |
17 |
Connectivity .................................................................................................................................. |
19 |
The environment........................................................................................................................... |
21 |
The emergence of aviation blocks................................................................................................. |
21 |
Market access ............................................................................................................................... |
23 |
Ownership and control.................................................................................................................. |
24 |
The business environment ............................................................................................................ |
27 |
Fair competition............................................................................................................................ |
28 |
Outlook for liberalisation............................................................................................................... |
31 |
Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................. |
32 |
Notes................................................................................................................................................. |
35 |
References ........................................................................................................................................ |
36 |
Chapter 2 Research report ................................................................................................................ |
37 |
Purpose ......................................................................................................................................... |
37 |
Outline........................................................................................................................................... |
39 |
Freedoms of the air....................................................................................................................... |
39 |
Defining open skies ....................................................................................................................... |
40 |
Instruments for regulation and liberalisation................................................................................ |
41 |
Alliances and joint ventures: Industry’s |
|
response to competition and ownership and control policies ...................................................... |
73 |
Economics impacts of liberalisation .............................................................................................. |
94 |
Country case studies ................................................................................................................... |
140 |
Challenges and issues.................................................................................................................. |
185 |
The way forward ......................................................................................................................... |
209 |
Notes............................................................................................................................................... |
214 |
References ...................................................................................................................................... |
222 |
Chapter 3 What do we mean by a level playing field in international aviation? .............................. |
240 |
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ |
240 |
Historical context ........................................................................................................................ |
241 |
LIBERALISATION OF AIR TRANSPORT © OECD/ITF 2019 |
5 |
TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
Factors affecting the level playing field that should not be considered an issue ........................ |
243 |
Geography................................................................................................................................... |
243 |
Airline size ................................................................................................................................... |
244 |
Factors of production.................................................................................................................. |
244 |
Sixth freedom traffic ................................................................................................................... |
245 |
Airport slots................................................................................................................................. |
246 |
Legitimate concerns raised by level playing field ........................................................................ |
247 |
Subsidies...................................................................................................................................... |
248 |
Liberalisation and the level playing field ..................................................................................... |
250 |
Alliances, antitrust immunity and the level playing field............................................................. |
250 |
A final implication of having a level playing field......................................................................... |
251 |
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. |
252 |
Future areas for consideration.................................................................................................... |
252 |
References ...................................................................................................................................... |
253 |
Chapter 4 EU air transport liberalisation: process, impacts and future considerations ................... |
254 |
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ |
254 |
The creation of the internal market ............................................................................................ |
255 |
The impact of liberalisation on the European market................................................................. |
258 |
The emergence of low-cost carriers in Europe............................................................................ |
267 |
Development of full service network carriers in the liberalised market...................................... |
276 |
Airport competition and airport capacity as a competition barrier ............................................ |
283 |
EU external aviation policy: process and impacts ....................................................................... |
285 |
Merger control ............................................................................................................................ |
288 |
Conclusions and future perspectives .......................................................................................... |
289 |
Notes............................................................................................................................................... |
293 |
References ...................................................................................................................................... |
294 |
Annex 4.A................................................................................................................................... |
296 |
Annex 4.B................................................................................................................................... |
298 |
Annex 4.C................................................................................................................................... |
299 |
Annex 4.D Comparison between bilateral and plurilateral arrangements |
|
governing the operation of international air services............................................................... |
301 |
Annex 4.E The air cargo fuel charge cases................................................................................. |
303 |
Chapter 5 Assessing the prospects for an EU-ASEAN air transport agreement ............................... |
304 |
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ |
304 |
Envisioning the EU - ASEAN open skies market........................................................................... |
304 |
Conclusion................................................................................................................................... |
314 |
References ...................................................................................................................................... |
315 |
Annex 5.A Network maps of leading sixth freedom carriers in the Middle East and Asia............... |
316 |
6 |
LIBERALISATION OF AIR TRANSPORT © OECD/ITF 2019 |
|
TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Chapter 6 Dominant carrier performance and international liberalisation: |
|
The case of North East Asia ............................................................................................................. |
320 |
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ |
320 |
Domestic market development and status of major airlines ...................................................... |
322 |
Implications of liberalisation to dominant airlines ...................................................................... |
331 |
Liberalisation by facilitating low-cost carrier services ................................................................. |
337 |
Summary, conclusion, and further thought ................................................................................ |
342 |
Notes............................................................................................................................................... |
345 |
References ...................................................................................................................................... |
346 |
Figures
Figure 2.1 Airline partnership options and their level of integration............................................. |
109 |
|
Figure 2.2 The S-curve effect .......................................................................................................... |
113 |
|
Figure 2.3 Minimum economic mass (product of GDP at origin and destination) |
|
|
necessary for the opening of a direct connection, as a function of distance................................. |
114 |
|
Figure 2.4. Regional breakdown of revenue passenger kilometres ................................................ |
116 |
|
Figure 2.5 Share of low-cost carriers in intraregional (excluding domestic) capacity in 2010 ....... |
117 |
|
Figure 2.6 Schematic representation of the network organisation |
|
|
of a two-country hub-and-spoke model ........................................................................................ |
119 |
|
Figure 2.7 |
Returns and cost of capital for the listed airline industry ............................................. |
121 |
Figure 2.8 |
Net profit margin for fiscal year 2014 (2014f) versus |
|
Herfindahl-Hirschman Index of market concentration based on market share by seat capacity ... |
123 |
|
Figure 2.9 |
STRI for commercial establishment in air transport by policy area............................... |
124 |
Figure 2.10 Schema of network design with and without co-terminalisation................................ |
136 |
|
Figure 2.11 Degree of aviation friendly policies of selected carriers in their home country.......... |
191 |
|
Figure 4.1 |
Number of routes and number of flights within EU15+2, 1990-2013........................... |
260 |
Figure 4.2. Number of routes and number of flights within EU15+2, 1990-2013.......................... |
260 |
|
Figure 4.3. Year-on-year growth of number of intra-EU15+2 scheduled flights |
|
|
and number of scheduled routes (airport-pairs) compared to previous year, 1990-2013 ............ |
261 |
|
Figure 4.4. Share of different carrier types in the total number of intra-EU15+2 flights............... |
262 |
|
LIBERALISATION OF AIR TRANSPORT © OECD/ITF 2019 |
7 |
TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
Figure 4.5. Number of scheduled and effectives carriers with services |
|
within EU15+2 and number of effective carriers, 1990-2013......................................................... |
264 |
Figure 4.6. Weighted number of effective carriers at the route level |
|
for intra-EU15+2 flights, 1990-2013 .............................................................................................. |
265 |
Figure 4.7. Number of routes and number of carriers operating at |
|
the route level (intra-EU15+2), 1990-2013................................................................................... |
266 |
Figure 4.8. Categorisation of intra-EU15+2 services by freedom of |
|
the air for selected European carriers ........................................................................................... |
267 |
Figure 4.9. Categorisation of intra-EU15+2 services by freedom of |
|
the air for selected European carriers ............................................................................................ |
268 |
Figure 4.10. Unit cost differentials for selected European FSCs and LCCs in 2012 ........................ |
269 |
Figure 4.11. Annual growth of the number of low-cost carrier |
|
intra-EU15+2 flights 1990-2013, compared to previous year........................................................ |
270 |
Figure 4.12a Number and share of low-cost flights in total number of intra-EU15+2 flights ........ |
271 |
4.12b. Number and share of low-cost flights in a selection |
|
of originating countries, 1990-2013............................................................................................... |
271 |
Figure 4.13. Total number of low-cost routes (intra-EU15+2) |
|
and share of route by number of operators, 1990-2013................................................................ |
272 |
Figure 4.14. Number of low-cost carriers and number of effective |
|
low-cost carriers (1/hhi) operating flights within EU15+2, 1990-2013........................................... |
272 |
Figure 4.15. Percentage of routes shared by low-cost carriers and (former) |
|
flag full-service carriers................................................................................................................... |
274 |
Figure 4.16. Total Europe (incl. domestic) passenger yield, US¢/RPK............................................ |
275 |
Figure 4.17. The rise and consolidation of European hubs (EU15+2), 1990-2010......................... |
277 |
Figure 4.18. Feeder value of major EU hubs in 2004 and 2014 ..................................................... |
278 |
Figure 4.19. Number of routes (airport-pairs) operated by (former) flag |
|
full-service carriers and share of type of routes by number of carriers, 1990-2013 ...................... |
279 |
Figure 4.20. Total number of scheduled intra-EU15+2 operations |
|
per week of the ten largest leisure carriers .................................................................................. |
282 |
Figure 4.21. Selected mergers, take-overs and bankruptcies of legacy carriers ............................ |
283 |
Figure 4.22. Airport congestion according to Eurocontrol’s scenario C......................................... |
284 |
Figure 4.B.1 Low-cost airlines and years of operation as applied in this chapter .......................... |
298 |
Figure 5.A.1. Emirates.................................................................................................................... |
316 |
Figure 5.A.1. Qatar airways............................................................................................................ |
317 |
Figure 5.A.3. Turkish airlines .......................................................................................................... |
317 |
Figure 5.A.4. Korean Air ................................................................................................................. |
318 |
8 |
LIBERALISATION OF AIR TRANSPORT © OECD/ITF 2019 |
|
TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Figure 5.A.5. Thai Airways.............................................................................................................. |
318 |
Figure 5.A.6. Singapore airlines...................................................................................................... |
319 |
Tables
Table 2.1 Freedoms of the air .......................................................................................................... |
40 |
Table 2.2 Number of EU member states having ASAs with Canada |
|
with their levels if restriction ............................................................................................................ |
69 |
Table 2.3 Literature overview on the impact of alliances on air fares, |
|
traffic and consumer surplus .......................................................................................................... |
103 |
Table 2.4 Revenue passenger kilometres and direct connections |
|
(between model regions) in 2030 and 2050 .................................................................................. |
115 |
Table 2.5. Examples of granted subsidies ...................................................................................... |
200 |
Table 2.6. Qualitative assessment of the impacts of subsidies ...................................................... |
205 |
Table 4.C.1. Low-cost carriers in different studies......................................................................... |
299 |
Table 4.D.1 Comparison of the degree of liberalisation of selected air policy regimes ................. |
301 |
Table 5.1. Status of EU designation agreements with ASEAN member states................................ |
305 |
Table 5.2. Direct operations by EU and ASEAN carriers between the two regions......................... |
306 |
Table 5.3. One-stop operations by sixth freedom carriers between the EU and ASEAN ............... |
307 |
Table 5.4. Middle Eastern and Turkish carriers’ capacity into ASEAN, by weekly seats ................. |
308 |
Table 5.5. Points offered for ASEAN-China Agreement’s Draft Protocol 2 |
|
on Fifth Freedom Rights.................................................................................................................. |
311 |
Table 6.1. Airport slot control and coordination of Chinese airports............................................. |
325 |
Table 6.2. Market share of the top-ten Chinese airports............................................................... |
327 |
Table 6.3. Average aircraft size on routes between different sized airports ................................. |
328 |
Table 6.4. Weekly average flight frequency on routes between different-sized airports.............. |
328 |
Table 6.5. Benchmark major airlines’ performance in NEA............................................................ |
329 |
Table 6.6. Gross Total Factor Productivity (TFP) Index of major airlines: |
|
Normalised at American Airlines 2005=1........................................................................................ |
330 |
Table 6.7. NEA Airline service to North American destinations ..................................................... |
332 |
Table 6.8. NEA Airline service to European destinations ............................................................... |
333 |
LIBERALISATION OF AIR TRANSPORT © OECD/ITF 2019 |
9 |