Index

acquiescence, 194, 201, 247 Adriatic Sea, 175

Africa, 266, 210, 211, 299

agency, 93–5, 111, 114–5, 146, 151, 192, 237

archipelagos, 270 consequences of, 95 criteria for, 111 diligent agency, 92

inter-agency transactions, 231, 235 jurisdiction and, 101

juristic personality, 93–4 material independence and, 50 primary agents, 94

principle of, 93–5

protection of, 231, 236, 253, 396 reciprocity and, 96, 115 secondary agents, 94 stewardship and, 249, 297–8 see also States

Agenda 21, 13, 159, 244, 286 air, 84, 90, 215, 281

air space, 259, 300

air pollution, 42, 84, 237 air routes, 267

susceptibility to ownership, 51 Alaska, 178, 188, 329

Alexander, 130

Allott, 69, 77–8, 216, 300–1 amber, 191

Anglo-Dutch wars, 168 Annala, 365 Antarctica, 113 Antunes, 262 Anzilotti, 231 apartheid, 86, 106, 388

appropriation, 39, 134, 195, 219 by labour, 32

constraints on, 34–5 of fish, 172

of the sea, 17, 177, 179, 181, 194, 397–8 protection against, 26

appurtenance, 189, 200, 260, 274, 299 archipelagic waters, 255, 265–70

archipelagic passage, 267–8 definition of, 265–6 fisheries, 268–9

juridical nature of, 266–7 legal regime, 267–70 property and, 268, 269–70

Arctic, 212

areas beyond national jurisdiction, 139, 142, 236, 286

see also deep sea bed; high seas Arendt, 154

Argentina, 206, 210 Aristotle, 39, 50 Arnason, 346, 364–5 artificial islands, 284, 295

Atlantic Ocean, 166, 185, 212 Attard, 295, 296

auction, 375, 385 Australia, 7, 103, 275

allocation of fish, 334, 336, 337 Australian Fisheries Management

Authority, 334, 335 condition of fisheries, 344 constitution, 333, 343

cost recovery from fisheries, 337 fisheries case law, 339–42 fisheries legislation, 333–337, 338 indigenous rights, 141–2

international obligations, 333, 334, 344 legal system, 333

rights based management, 333–44 state fisheries, 335–7

statutory fishing rights, 334–5 autonomy, 150–1, 255, 396

agency and, 114 choice, 109 economic, 66 free speech, 112 individual, 25, 89 liberty, 64, 66, 90

opportunity and, 54 political, 128

see also liberty propriety and, 54

property protecting autonomy, 17, 25, 89, 121

self-determination and, 78

Baltic Sea, 175 Barclay, 205 Barzel, 314

bays, 171, 199, 203 beaches, 319 Becker, 32, 57, 58 Bell, 69, 89, 105, 112 belligerency, 180

416 Index

Bentham, 40, 86, 325 Berki, 154

biological diversity, 135–7, 240, 315, 382, 399 community interests and, 108 consequences for ownership, 135, 137,

242, 244–8, 249, 254 definition, 241

fisheries regulation and, 303, 359, 381, 401 habitat protection, 131

integrated approach to regulation, 300 international regulation of, 136–7, 236,

241–8

prior notification and consultation, 238 protection of versus development, 12 protection of, 136, 241

public interest in, 136, 388 stewardship and, 161, 297 threats to, 242

see also Jakarta Mandate Black Sea, 175

Bodin, 50 boundaries, 299, 314

fishing and, 154, 203, 390 jurisdiction and, 101 land, 252

maritime, 173, 174, 299 stability of, 263

territorial use rights in fisheries, 320 uti possedetis and, 78

see also maritime delimitation Boyd and Dewees, 365

Brazil, 206, 274 Brierly, 273

Brilmayer and Klein, 252 British navy, 176

British Seas, 167–8, 174, 195 Britton, 371

Brown, 176,

Brownlie, 141, 228, 260

Brundtland Report, 12–3 Buckle, 169

bunkering, 297 Burke, 292–4

see also McDougal and Burke Buzan, 256–7

by-catch, 330, 357, 380, 396 by-catch quotas, 323 Bynkershoek, 193–4

Canada, 199, 235, 247, 293–4, 389 allocation of fish, 345, 346, 347 condition of fisheries, 345, 350–1, 379 constitution, 345

cost recovery, 347–8

Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 345, 346, 350

fisheries case law, 348–50, 391 fisheries legislation, 345, 346–7

Fisheries Management Agreements, 347 international obligations, 205

legal system, 345 pollution control, 212

rights based management, 8, 345–51 cannon-shot rule, 18, 184–5, 195

Bynkershoek and, 193, 194 concessions to, 204

effective occupation and, 217 capitalism, 22

see also free market Carter, 24, 47, 48 charity, 53

Cheng, 75 Chile, 206, 207

Christman, 23–4, 35, 43 Christy Jr, 5, 7, 320, 322–3, 330

Churchill and Lowe, 9–10, 186, 283, 306 Churchill, 213

climate, 240

climate change, 74, 76–7, 242 Coase, 42

coastal State authority, 273–5, 311 consolidation of, 275, 293 development of, 165–220 dispute settlement and, 293 exclusive fishing and, 8 extended, 210

functional, 275

ICJ consideration of, 273–4

Law of the Sea Convention and, 4–5 physical excludability and, 27 property rights and, 170

UNCLOS I and, 209 unsettled nature of, 187

see also archipelagic waters; continental shelf; exclusive economic zone; jurisdiction (coastal State)

codes of conduct, 258–9, 302–5, 315, 344, 399

see also FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries

collateral, 331, 355 Colombos, 180 Columbus, 166

co-management, 311, 365, 384 common concern, 232, 240

common property and, 240 biodiversity and, 108, 244, 245, 246, 249 public interest, 240

common heritage of mankind, 13, 189, 247 common law, 333, 335, 357, 366, 392

Crown ownership of fisheries, 361 customary international law and, 103 limits to fishing rights, 336

native title and, 141–2

property and, 325, 335, 340, 343, 373, 391

protection of individual autonomy, 25 public right of fishing, 339, 348, 366 rule of capture, 371

status of licences, 348

common pool resources, 1–3, 395, 400 access limitation, 388

attributes, 1 biodiversity and, 136 biodiversity, 136

common property and, 153–4 community development quotas

and, 330 definition, 1 EEZ and, 368

fisheries as, 9–10, 314, 318, 386–7 over-exploitation, 3, 386, 395 property rights and, 1, 400 status of oceans, 1

territorial use rights in fisheries, 322 common property, 23, 48, 153–4

biodiversity and, 245 common concern and, 240

common pool resources and, 1, 400 community development quotas

and, 330 definition, 153

distinction from private property, 170 efficiency and, 41, 153–4

fisheries as, 318, 350, 352, 355, 358 labour theory and, 32

liberty and, 39

oceans as, 171, 314, 399 propriety and, 55

commons, 28, 113, 153–4

see also high seas; tragedy of the commons

communism, 21 community, 70–83 agency and, 94 definition of, 70

determinant of desert, 35 diversity, 73, 74, 80 European Union, 72

groups, 70–1, 73, 74, 77, 78, 82 influence on property structures,

68–9

institutions, 74–7, 80 liberal theory and, 64 needs, 89

ownership of common pool resource, 1, propriety and, 50, 67

public trust and, 51 reciprocity and, 95–6

relationship with values, 69–70, 71 rights and, 127–8

role of law within, 71–2, 73, 75–83 States as, 74–5

structure of, 73, 74–80, 83

Index 417

utility and, 40, 67

see also community interests/values; international community; plenary legal communities; public interests

community development quotas, 317, 328–30, 370

community interests/values:

as public interests, 84, 85, 87–89,113 balance with individual interest, 148 basic community interests, 113, 119, 253 biodiversity and, 246, 248, 249 coincidence with individual interests, 121 community structures, 83

delimitation and, 307 development of, 80, 398 EEZ and, 296–7, 305–6, 311 jus cogens and, 107–9, 117

Law of the Sea Convention and, 287, 311–2

marginalisation of in property discourse, 63–5

priority of interests, 50, 64, 73–4, 109–110 protection of, 68, 216

relationship with community, 70, 71 stewardship, 52, 161–2

compatibility principle, 288–9, 304 compensation, 23, 204, 385

Australia, 342, 343

cancellation of fishing rights, 335, 338, 343, 361, 370, 373, 392

for changes to welfare, 43

domestic rules on expropriation, 65, 356 environmental impact assessments

and, 23 Iceland, 356

international rules on expropriation, 77, 230, 233

New Zealand, 360, 361 reciprocity and, 115 reduction in quotas, 360 theory of, 207

United States, 370, 372, 373 concessions, 176

fishing, 384

oil and gas, 279, 280 territorial, 225, 228

condominia, 225

consequentialism, 144–7, 197, 315, 316, 378, 391–2, 397

allocation, 322–3, 385–7 behavioural, 145, 180, 220 conservation and management,

considerations, 381–5 economic considerations, 378–80 identifying consequences, 238

legal (juridical), 145, 187, 218–9, 262, 310, 350, 354, 391

moral considerations, 152

418 Index

conservation, 5, 197, 213, 220 anthropocentric view, 173

basis for EEZ claims, 207, 208, 209 beyond national jurisdiction, 4, 7, 178 biodiversity, 136–7, 238, 243–6, 247, 249 consequences, 197, 219

cost/benefits, 46 data, 284

duty of, 115, 156, 157, 241, 282 environment, 41

ex situ, 243 exclusion and, 8

fisheries, 174, 215, 295, 347 habitats, 131–2

in situ, 136, 243 ITQs and, 327

justification for property, 197 natural resources, 232, 233 non-living resources, 282 propriety and, 202, 255 public interest and, 256 reciprocity and, 115

relationship with economic/selfinterests, 204

stewardship and, 157–8, 159, 162 watercourses, 233

see also conservation and management; habitats protection

conservation and management, 113, 119, 380, 388, 399–400

archipelago, 266, 269–70 Australian fisheries, 334 Canadian fisheries, 345, 347, 351 community interest in, 113, 311 continental shelf, 276, 282

duty of, 52, 284, 298, 299, 315, 381, 388, 399

EEZ, 218, 220, 284–98, 299, 311 fisheries, 65, 254, 331, 381–5 Icelandic fisheries, 357

ITQs, 327

marine mammals, 289 post-Law of the Sea Convention

developments, 302–4 property and, 22 propriety and, 52, 220 public interest in, 388 sedentary species, 276

stakeholder involvement, 244 stewardship, 52,

territorial use rights in fisheries, 322 territorial sea, 260, 265

United States fisheries, 366, 367, 370, 373, 376

constitutional law, 74, 372, 396 approach to property, 130 Australia, 333, 343

Canada, 345

Germany, 130

human rights and the environment, 149–50

impact on fisheries, 391, 392, 401 Iceland, 351, 354–5, 356

Law of the Sea Convention as, 256 New Zealand, 357–8, 361

public interests and, 105–6, 117 United Kingdom, 106

United States, 106, 361, 366, 372 contiguous zone, 255, 295

continental shelf, 198–202, 270–82, 311, 333, 398

basis in domestic law, 215 definition, 271 delimitation, 307

development of, 198–202, 209, 217 duties of coastal State, 271–2 juridical status, 200, 201, 272 justification for, 200–2, 254 occupation, 217

outer continental shelf, 271–2 propriety and, 220

relationship with the EEZ, 206, 207, 218, 219, 270, 298–9

relevance to high seas fisheries, 215 rights of coastal State, 272

sedentary species, 270, 271, 275–6, 290 sovereign rights, 272–3, 274, 279, 280,

281, 293

Truman Proclamation, 199–200 utility and, 220

conventional rights, 168, 169–70, 171, 183 income from property, 33

property as a product of, 34 cooperation, 33, 281, 389

biodiversity and, 241, 245, 248, 382 community development quotas, 329 continental shelf, 202, 270, 276–8, 279 duty of, 381, 401

EEZ, 284, 285–6, 286, 287, 290, 292 fisheries management, 258, 256–8, 344,

377, 386, 390 inadequacy of duty, 292

in resource use, 306, 381, 384, 390, 401 Law of the Sea Convention’s aim, 257–8 out of common concern, 249 procedural nature, 279

provisional measures and, 234 reciprocity and, 96, 97, 100, 104 shared resources, 28 transboundary resources, 233, 245

Copes, 376, 383 coral, 191

correlative States, 276, 279, 281 cost benefit analysis, 41, 401

in fisheries, 362, 375, 387 inappropriateness of, 46

incomplete, 42

to assess behaviour consequences, 146 Costa Rica, 206

crime, 102, 112, 266

criminal law, 66, 94, 102, 103 international crimes, 80, 81, 103, 106, 108

crops, 131, 162,

Crown, 141, 168, 202, 203 Crown property:

Australian fisheries, 337, 339

British waters, 185–6, 190–1, 197, 199 Canadian licences, 349

cannon-shot rule and, 195 feudal law, 191

native title and, 141–2

New Zealand fisheries, 360, 361 sea-bed, 198–9, 290–1

Crutchfield, 7 cultural property, 28

customary international law, 76, 199, 333, 358, 366

coastal State jurisdiction and, 193 common law and, 103 continental shelf, 267

EEZ, 210, 282, 283

environmental impact assessment, 238–9

evolution of, 79, 199 fisheries, 213, 303, 305 joint developments, 277–8 maritime delimitation, 307

source of international law, 76, 180, 196 customary rights, 12

customs laws, 260, 266

Davies and Redgwell, 288 De Vattel, 180, 196, 216

appropriation of the sea, 179, 194–5 cannon-shot rule, 194

fishing right, 103

positivist method, 195, 196, 216 De Visscher, 82

decolonisation, 78, 80 deep sea bed, 13 Demetz, 42, 48

democracy, 74, 86, 230, 301 community interest in, 68 condition for Statehood, 225

international community interest in, 80 liberty and, 64, 66, 111

limit on State authority, 25 propriety and, 51, 52

Denmark, 184, 189, 273, 309, 351 desert:

desert/labour justification of property, 30, 35, 36, 39, 56, 58, 66, 121, 386

encouraging socially worthwhile activities, 66

Index 419

pluralism and, 56, 58, 60 social contingency of, 66

desires, 43, 45, 46, 54, 90–1, 105, 109–10

developed States, 80, 211, 290 developing States, 300, 306, 312

outer continental shelf, 272–3 EEZ rights, 284, 285

interest in marine resources, 209, 255 territorial sea and, 265

wealth distribution, 217, 272 Dewees, see Boyd and Dewees discards, 331, 383, 395

Icelandic fisheries, 357

incentives to increase, 351, 383, 383 ITQs and, 351, 383

minimising, 287, 331

New Zealand fisheries, 365 United States fisheries, 377

discretion, 349, 350

allocation of fishing rights, 330, 348, 349, 350

defeasibility and, 143 in delimitation, 307

margin of discretion, 148

to determine public interest, 85 natural resource use, 232, 281, 284, 292 reasonableness and, 147

territorial concessions and, 228 setting TAC, 292

dispute settlement, 24, 257, 293 distant water fishing, 5, 211, 286–6, 296

see also high seas fisheries

distributive justice, 38, 45–6, 76, 305, 306, 307–8

see also wealth (distribution) Djalal, 269

dolphin, 65

domestic law, 106, 117, 206 acquisition of property, 13 agency and, 93, 95

domestic legal orders, 74, 75, 80, 100 environmental impact assessments, 239 fishing rights and, 215, 286, 370,

388–9

natural resources and, 397, 398, 402 property and, 11–2, 18, 82, 114, 138–9,

140, 216, 276 reciprocity, 99, 100

relationship with international law, 11–4, 77, 165, 248, 257, 258

source of maritime authority, 187–8, 197, 215

values embodied in, 12 dominium, 169 dumping, 238

Dutch East India Company, 166–7, 168 Dworkin, 125

420 Index

East Indies, 166 economic rent, 336, 376

dissipation of, 2, 3 justification for tax, 354

rent recovery in fisheries, 364, 386 ecosystems, 7, 136, 155, 285, 319, 401 ecosystem approach, 254, 378

as a public interest, 114

basis for exclusive fisheries, 207 biodiversity and, 241, 244 definition, 304

post-Law of the Sea Convention development, 303

to fisheries, 287, 375, 376, 381, 399 United States, 375, 376

Ecuador, 207, 210

effective occupation, 217, 219

exclusive fishing claims, 203, 214, 215 sea-bed, 200

terra nullius, 140

territorial sea, 183, 184, 260 efficiency, 19, 38, 67, 264, 316, 395

allocation, 42, 48, 67, 356 as a moral goal, 45, 47 as a public good, 315

Australian fisheries, 334, 351 common property and, 154 community development quotas

and, 330

distortion of preference, 47 economic, 2–3, 316 externalities and, 42

fishing, 6, 379, 380, 387, 395, 400 Icelandic fisheries, 353, 356, 357 impact of input controls, 317, 318 impact on sustainability, 7 inefficiency, 6, 121, 153

justification for property, 38, 41–4, 128 markets and, 48, 49

New Zealand fisheries, 361

principle of utility and efficiency, 58–9, 60 property and, 8–9, 48, 154, 270, 400 reducing overcapitalisation, 7 stewardship and, 161, 297

stock use rights in fisheries, 334 territorial use rights in fisheries and,

322, 323 tests of, 42–3

title as a precondition for resource exploitation, 252

uncertainty and, 45

United States fisheries, 369, 375, 377 Egypt, 225

El Salvador, 206 Elizabeth I, 176, 202 enclosure, 5, 174, 266 energy, 281, 283

see also oil

enforcement: agency, 298

Australian fisheries, 336, 344 Canadian fisheries, 346, 351

community development quotas, 329, 330 conservation and management measures,

4, 380, 383–4, 390 costs, 3, 256–7, 364 Icelandic fisheries, 357 jurisdiction, 104, 115 limits to jurisdiction, 28

morality and law enforcement, 108 New Zealand fisheries, 365 problems, 6

stock use rights in fisheries, 331 England, 167, 186, 191

enterprise quotas, 323

environmental impact assessment, 234, 238–40

environmental law, 113, 124, 217, 401 international, 234–49

Epstein, 143

equality, 105, 149, 347, 353

deficit between real and notional, 75 formal, 82, 93, 94, 95, 96, 135 juridical, 74, 93

material, 94, 115

principle of justice and, 58, 59, 61 sovereign, 111, 182

utility and, 40 equitable use, 256 equity:

definition, 91

equitable overrides, 151 necessity and, 172

quota allocations, 362, 370 reciprocity and, 192

territorial use rights in fisheries and, 323 unattributed rights (in EEZ), 296 United States fisheries and, 377

wealth allocation, 272, 279, 290, 347 see also equitable use; intergenerational

equity Eritrea, 261–3, 309

European Community, 239 EC law, 131–2

European Court of Human Rights, 12, 148 European Court of Justice, 247, 257–8 eutrophication, 242

excludability, 314, 396–8

common pool resources and, 1–2 common property and, 153

exclusion of foreign fishing, 5, 368, 381 ITQs and, 328

limits to the EEZ, 306 obstacles to, 153

property as, 15, 17, 18, 22–9, 62, 119–20 stewardship and, 157, 159, 390

territorial use rights in fisheries and, 320 see also, legal excludability; moral

excludability; physical excludability exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 179, 190,

202–215, 282–306

coastal State rights and duties, 283–91 definition, 283

development of concept, 202–14, 283 impact on property, 139

juridical status, 282, 291–301 oceans enclosure, 5

stewardship, 282, 292, 297–3–2, 309, 312 sui generis regime, 282, 291

see also conservation and management; optimum utilisation; total allowable catch,

expropriation, 232–3, 343 compensation for, 230 domestic, 12, 343 international, 12, 77, 115, 230

limits on natural resources, 232–3 Iraq and, 116

see also takings

externalities, 42, 48, 67, 154, 354

fairness, 44, 76, 99, 201, 353 see also Franck

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, 258, 302–5, 315, 344, 399

Feintuck, 68, 92

ferae naturae, 371, 388, 401 feudalism, 52, 191, 216 first appropriation, 35, 219

see also effective occupation fiscal laws, 260

fisheries:

abalone, 340, 341 anadromous species, 289–90 artisanal, 287, 309 catadromous species, 290 demersal, 353

domestic, 1, 287–8, 333–78, 388, 389, 402 expansion of domestic fisheries, 5, 8 failures of, 1, 7

herring, 205, 351, 353 high seas, 2, 5, 7, 286, 344

highly migratory fish stocks, 258, 286–7, 291

pelagic, 205, 319, 353 pollock, 328, 330

straddling fish stocks, 258, 286–7 traditional, 5, 261–3, 268, 309, 370, 384 see also fisheries management

fisheries management, 313, 387, 391–2, 400, 401–2

benefits of rights-based management, 9, 384

community development quotas, 330

Index 421

criteria for, 302–5

ecosystem approach to, 285, 381 failures of, 7

influence of domestic management, 288 influence of law on, 314, 388

influence of preferential rights on, 214 input controls and, 319

see also rights-based management fisheries regulation, 258, 390–3, 399

disengagement from claims of sovereignty, 215

domestic, 5

emergence of conservation concerns, 204 impact of FAO Code of Conduct, 303–5 impact of Fish Stocks Agreement, 287–9 international, 203

navigation and, 260

see also input controls; output controls; public fisheries; rights-based management

fishing, 395, 400

impact on marine environment, 395 impact on biodiversity, 242 integrated approach to, 254

Dutch, 168

fish farming, 264 freedom of, 235 mortality, 264, 331, 377 navigation and, 172 public trust and, 247

trawling, 173, 205, 293, 320

zones, 190, 210, 212, 213, 214, 219, 296, 352, see also exclusive economic zone

see also by-catch; discards; fisheries; fisheries regulation; fishing derbies; harvesting capacity; historical fishing rights; overfishing; illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; rights-based management

fishing derbies, 6, 8, 368 elimination of, 324, 380, 384

community development quotas, 330 fishing licences, 7, 318, 389

Australia, 336–8, 340–2, 344 access limitation and, 27 Canada, 345–50

New Zealand, 358

United States, 367, 368, 372 fishing permits:

allocations, 363 Australia, 334–5, 336, 337

conditions on, 334, 360, 370, 389 duration, 335

Iceland, 352

individual fishing quota as a, 368 New Zealand, 360

proprietary nature, 372 revocation, 373

422 Index

transfer of, 335 United States, 367 value of, 335

Fitzmaurice, 108, 273

flag State jurisdiction, 182, 255, 258

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 1, 220, 341, 344

food:

ensuring production of, 55, 302 optimisation, 367

propriety and, 53, 67 rationing, 67 stewardship and, 162, 262 supplies, 135

vital needs, 90, 114, 233, 281 foreseeability, 145

France, 203, 237, 293–4 Franck, 76, 95

free market, 33, 43, 47, 63 access to, 92

based regulation, 7, 65, 67, 366 conditions, 43–4

defence of, 45–6, 52 entry to, 44 environment and, 21 externalities and, 42 fisheries and, 65 ITQ values, 351

liberal democracy and, 74

link with private property, 48–9 market failures, 44, 49, 56,

67, 113

market regulation, 85 market values, 335, 355, 376 public interest and, 113 trend towards, 7, 15

see also externalities; monopolies free rider, 97, 264

freedom of expression, 84, 134, 144 autonomy, 112

constitutional principle, 106 limit to property, 16, 28, 134 public interest, 84 relationship to agency, 111 threats to, 64

freedom of the high seas, 169, 177–83, 214, 219, 227, 235

common pool resource, 2 continental shelf and, 200, 208 EEZ and, 202, 295

influence of, 2, 187, 218 minimal regulation, 4 open access, 134 territorial sea and, 261 see also mare liberum

Fuller, 76, 98–9 Fulton, 190

fungible goods, 27, 306, 342 common pool resource, 2 fish, 27, 264, 324, 356 ITQs, 324, 356

future generations, 149, 240, 249 biodiversity and, 246 fisheries and, 302

public interest and, 87, 91–2 stewardship and, 156

vital needs and, 114, 396

Garcia Amador, 207

general principles (of international law), 130 genetic resources, 114, 136, 241, 249 genetically modified crops, 131

Geneva Conference on the Law of the Sea, 190, 209, 273

geographically disadvantaged States, 265, 285, 290, 300, 306

German law, 130, 225 Gidel, 180, 182, 206 Gissurarson, 354 Goldie, 275

good faith, 237, 286, 292, 350 government, 68, 392

agency and, 95 distributive choices, 92

intervention, 6, 49, 67, 126, 318 property and, 31, 64, 193, 198, 216, 301 structure of, 74–5, 76, 77, 83, 104 public interest and, 72, 105

vertical reciprocity, 98 Gray, 15, 23, 26–8, 133 Great Britain, 225

Continental shelf, 200

maritime policy, 167–8, 176, 177–8, 195 territorial waters, 185, 186, 199, 203 fishing disputes, 168, 188, 203, 204 Spitzbergen, 140

Greenland, 189 Griffin, 110 Grotius, 166–73, 195

Bynkershoek, 193

Dutch East India Company, 168 fisheries, 172

methodology, 168–9 natural law, 169, 172, 253

property rights, 169, 170–1, 172 Puffendorf and, 192

Selden and, 174, 175 Territorial waters, 183 Welwood and, 173–4 see also mare liberum

guidelines, 244, 258, 302, 304–5, 315, 381

Gulf of St Lawrence, 293 Gullet, see Mason and Gullet

habitats protection, 131–2, 162, 282, 382 biodiversity, 131, 241, 243

EC Habitats Directive, 131–2 fisheries, 303, 351, 359, 382 rainforest 92

Hague Codification Conference 1930, 189, 206 Hannesson, 379

hard cases, 145, Hardin, 2, 375–6 Harris, 155 Hart, 86, 143–4

harvesting capacity, 8, 317 allocation of ITQs, 347, 369

community development quotas, 330 determination of, 285

elimination of excess, 287, 351, 357, 369, 379, 380, 395

expansion of, 8, 358 failure to control, 7

regulation by input controls, 317–8 vessels, 362, 369

Hayek, 21, 45–6 hazardous activities, 12 Held, 87–8, 104–5

high grading, 331, 357, 377, 384, 395 high seas, 240, 287–9, 300

absence of property rights on, 197 biodiversity, 241

common property status, 153, 399 EEZ and, 282, 285, 292, 295–6 reduction through States’ claims,

206–8, 269

flag State jurisdiction, 4 ownership of, 194, 214 sedentary species and, 275

territorial use rights in fisheries, 322

see also freedom of the high sea; high seas fisheries

high seas fisheries, 2, 285–6, 289, 344 criminalising fishing offences on, 103 over fishing, 7

historic fishing rights, 261

see also traditional fishing (rights) Hohfeld, 21

Hollick, 283 Honduras, 206 Hong Kong, 226

Honoré, 23, 24, 33, 67–8 human body, 115

human rights, 12, 74, 80, 81, 105, 111

to property, 12, 21, 130, 149–50, 152, 232 humanitarian law, 99, 106

Hume, 39

Iceland, 7, 209–10, 212–3, 332, 351–7, 389 allocation of fish, 352, 353, 354–5, 356 constitution, 351, 354–5, 356

Index 423

cost recovery, 354 fisheries case law, 354–6

fisheries legislation, 351–3, 354 international obligations, 352 legal system, 351

Marine Research Institute, 352 Ministry of Fisheries, 352

rights based management, 351–7 condition of fisheries, 357

idealism, 126, 158

illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, 305, 344

immigration law, 103, 260, 266 incentives, 45, 162, 382

community development quotas and, 330

ITQs and, 351, 383

private property and, 41, 48, 49, 128 stock use rights in fisheries, 331

to discard fish, 382

to restrict fishing catches, 3, 6, 318, 375 incidents of property, 8, 23–4, 325, 340

analysis of territory in terms of, 224, 227, 228–31

biodiversity and, 245, 249 capital, 57, 229

collective property, 154

fishing rights, 263, 342, 347, 382, 388, 389, 401

harm prevention, 68, 157, 237, 245, 248, 264, 275, 315

IFQs and, 374

income, 155, 157, 229, 320, 321, 326 ITQs and, 325–7, 356

liability to execution, 23, 24, 228 management, 33, 132, 157, 229–30, 248,

263, 275, 315, 340, 390 possession, 33, 155, 157, 229, 326,

340, 349

public function of property and, 67–8 residuarity, 23, 24, 230, 321

security, 230, 264, 327, 332, 335, 342, 344, 350, 356, 379, 388

Statutory Fishing Rights, 335 stewardship, 156–7, 160, 162, 390 term, 230, 321, 327, 335, 342, 356, 388

territorial use rights in fisheries and, 320, 321, 322

transmissibility, 23, 24, 28, 228, 230 use, 33, 50, 54, 64, 84, 113, 132, 155, 322,

326, 382, 390, 401 India, 247

indigenous rights, 12, 233, 383 Australia, 141–2, 152 Canada, 345

New Zealand, 361, 384

territorial use rights in fisheries, 320

424 Index

individual fishing quotas, 317, 323–8, 368–77, 379, 387

see also by-catch quota; community development quota; enterprise quota; individual quotas; individual transferable quotas

individual quotas, 317, 323–8, 345, 351, 380, 382–4, 386

see also by-catch quota; community development quota; enterprise quota; individual fishing quota; individual transferable quotas

individual transferable quotas, 8, 323–8, 351, 378–80, 383

alienability, 326, 341, 342, 346, 369 allocation, 347, 352, 353–4, 355,

362–4, 375

as a property right, 324–8, 332, 348, 352–3, 356–7, 360, 361–2

Australia, 335–6 Canada, 345–6, 379 Challenges to, 354–5

consolidation of ownership of, 354 divisibility, 326, 353, 356, 374

duration, 326, 327, 331, 332, 338, 342, 352, 356, 359, 369, 370, 374, 379, 389

economic characteristics, 326 ecosystem approach and, 376

enforcement, 329, 344, 346, 351, 357, 365, 380, 383, 384

Iceland, 352–7

impact on fisheries, 344, 345–6, 351, 357, 365, 378–80, 383

individual fishing quotas, and, 368 inheritance, 326, 372, 374

leasing, 326, 342, 369, 370, 378 legal status, 324–5, 348 management, 326–7, 346, 347, 365 New Zealand, 358–60, 379 stewardship, 327

stock use rights in fisheries, 330 transferability, 326, 335, 338, 341, 342,

346, 352, 353, 355, 356, 357, 359, 368, 369, 372, 374, 380, 387

transferable use rights in fisheries and, 331

United States, 368, 373, 375

see also individual transferable share quota

individual transferable share quotas, 346, 359

inefficiency see efficiency infrastructure, 114, 328 inheritance, 326

tax, 355, 372, 374 inland seas, 171, 175

innocent passage, 195, 197, 259–60, 261, 267

input controls, 6, 317–9, 367, 379, 392

FAO Code of Conduct requirements, 303 fishing seasons, 318, 338, 384

gear restrictions, 6, 320, 358, 360, 382, 392 vessel limits, 6, 7, 317, 318, 360

Institut de Droit International, 205 integrated management, 245, 256, 284, 300 intellectual property, 15, 27, 135, 245 Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 150 intergenerational equity, 91

see also future generations International Commission of Jurists, 226

international community, 117, 182, 201, 291, 388, 398, 400

biodiversity interests, 388 definition, 72 heterogonous nature, 74, 80 history, 79–80

impact on property rules, 113 composition of, 81, 83, 267 structure, 75

unattributed rights and, 296–7

see also international community interests international community interests, 297, 307,

312, 398 biodiversity, 388

international commons, 240 jus cogens and, 106–9

law of the sea and, 218, 287, 311–2 relationship with sectional interest, 74 stability, 78

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 205

international criminal law, 80 international institutions, 80, 238, 251,

286, 306

absence of machinery, 75–6 biodiversity, 243–4

fisheries cooperation and management, 258, 286

Food and Agriculture Organisation, 220 habits and practices, 76

International Seabed Authority, 13 regional fisheries management

organisations, 220 United Nations, 220

international law:

basic needs and, 53, 397 compliance with, 76, 81–2, 83, 289,

305, 344

fisheries, see fisheries

natural resources, 65, 113, 234–48, 254, 257

objects of, 81–2 reciprocity, 99

relationship with domestic law, 142, 165, 186, 197

relationship with EC law, 257–8

scope, 4, 18

subjects of, 81–2, 94–95, 114–5

impact upon property, 11–4, 15–6, 116, 130, 139, 197, 220, 315, 398

see also customary international law; international legal system; law of the sea; jurisdiction; sovereignty

International Law Commission, 189–90, 233, 273

international leases, 225–6 international legal system, 75–83, 100,

114, 117

aggregation of interests, 75, 77–8 common interests, 78, 178–9, 181 duration of, 79–80

horizontal nature of, 75, 101 public interests, 106–9, 117, 396 structure of, 75–83, 98, 101

see also international institutions; international law

International Plans of Action, 258, 305, 315 International Seabed Authority, 13, 181,

271–2

International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 234

international trusts, 227 intuitionism, 57–8, 59 Ireland, 168

Islamic law, 262, 309

Jakarta Mandate, 244

James I, 167, 176, 184, 190, 195, 203 Jan Mayen Commission, 277

Jan Mayen, 139–40, 309 Jennings, 252

joint developments, 277–9 jurisdiction, 115, 150

agency and, 101, 111 Australia, 333 bases of, 100

biodiversity, 241, 245 Canada, 345

coastal State, 5, 165, 206, 211 consensual, 102

continental shelf, 199–200 distinct from ownership, 193 enforcement, 104

extended maritime, 211, 214 extra-territorial, 102, 186–7 fisheries, 168, 197, 212, 319 immunity, 79

limits on property, 138–9 nationality-based, 102, 182 pollution, 212 prescriptive, 101–2 principle of, 100–4

property beyond sovereignty, 139–41 protective, 102–3

Index 425

public interests and, 104, 138, 310 shared, 279

sovereign rights and, 273 territorial sea, 187, 188

territorial use rights in fisheries, 319, 322 territorial, 18, 101, 186

types of, 100 United States, 366 universal, 93, 103

see also coastal State authority; flag State jurisdiction; territorial jurisdiction

jus cogens, 78, 106–9, 117, 396

Kaldor-Hicks test, 42–3

Karp, 159

Keohane, 95–6, 97

Klein, see Brilmayer and Klein,

Koh, 256

Koskenniemi, 231

labour theory, 30–6 pluralism and, 56–9 public interest and, 66

labour/desert, 35, 60, 66, 121, 386 lagoons, 319

land, 50, 54–5, 77, 131, 152, 159, 260, access, 27, 176, 260

appurtenance, 189, 201, 260, 273, 275, 307 boundaries, 252

common, 2, 153 cultivation, 21

ownership, 16, 67, 141–2, 224 relationship to sea, 265–6

land-locked States, 210, 227, 272, 285, 290, 306

Latin America, 200, 208, 210–1, 211–2 Lauterpacht, 108, 141, 227

non-liqet, 201

relationship between property and sovereignty, 13–4, 224–5

theory of continental shelf, 200, 201, 219 use of reasonableness, 201, 219

law of the sea, 251–312, 398 history of, 165–220

see also, United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea

legal capacity, 24, 50, 71, 81, 82, 93–4, 114–5, 230

see also agency

legal coherence, 13, 148–50, 316, 398 Australian fisheries caselaw, 333 with higher order principles, 28, 148 pluralism and, 60

constitutional limits on fishing rights, 392, 401

EEZ and, 297

development of law of the sea, 218

Eritrea/Yemen Arbitration, 262

426 Index

environmental impact assessment, 240 public interest and, 89

R v Keyn, 187

legal excludability, 27–8, 253, 314, 397–8 areas beyond national jurisdiction, 142 control over ocean spaces and, 18, 215,

217, 252

determinant of property, 135 fisheries and, 388

fungible resources, 217, 342 limits to, 316

relationship with physical excludability, 15, 27, 135, 218, 252, 397–8

legal reasoning, 144–50, 315–6, 390–2, 397, 398

a posteriori, 169

a priori, 85, 107, 169–70, 176, 252 analogy, 13, 165, 230

defeasibility, 143–4, 145, 219, 315, 342 dialectics, 129, 216, 300 excludability and, 28

inductive, 131, 169

influence of property on sovereignty, 13 influence on development of the law of

the sea, 218, 219, 301 influence on fisheries regulation,

350, 362

maritime delimitation and, 307, 310 morals and, 151

natural law and, 177 reasonableness, 147–8, 201, 219, 315,

362, 364 syllogism, 134–5

see also consequentialism; legal coherence; reason dependency; universability

legitimacy, 76–7, 86, 115, 253–4 agency and, 111

democracy, 230 EEZ and, 83

equality of States and, 82 international law, 76–7, 81, 82, 83 political, 36

procedural, 76, 98–9, 115, 391 public interest and, 85 reciprocity and, 98–9, 115 substantive, 76, 92, 111, 305

legitimate expectations, 148

see also security of expectation lex situs rule, 116, 139, 142 liberty, 36, 37–9, 64, 235, 386

agency and, 235 democracy and, 64

individual ownership and, 153 material, 37, 28, 38, 39, 54, 66, 110 meaning of, 38

natural rights and, 32

parallels with maritime claims, 193

parallels with sovereignty, 231 pluralism and, 56

political, 90, 110, 114, 128 propriety and, 54

Libya, 278

licences, 116, 231, 252 access, 7, 318 boat, 342

cancellation, 344, 346, 350 liquor, 340–2

nature of, 318, 337, 348–50, 372–3 oil and gas, 13, 280–1 restrictions, 318

see also fishing licences Ligurian Sea, 175

limited entry fishery, 8, 330, 338 see also exclusive economic zone;

rights-based management littoral States, 173, 227, 261, 269, 273 livestock, 2

lobsters, 154, 319 Locke, 30–4, 36, 66, 177 Lockean proviso, 34 Lowe, 92, 298–99

see also Churchill and Lowe Lucy and Mitchell, 88, 159, 161 Lyons, 85

MacCormick, 144, 145–7, 151, 201 Mackinko, 371

Malaysia, 234 Malnes, 90, 109, 110 mandates, 227

mare clausum, 167, 168, 173, 175–6, 177, 193 mare liberum, 167, 168, 173, 177, 183

see also freedom of the high seas, marine mammals, 289

marine ranching, 264

marine resources, 150, 314, 397 conservation and management of,

302, 400

impact of fishing on, 65

international regulation of, 113, 254, 399 living, 302

non-living, 398 optimal utilisation, 255

property rights and, 139, 316, 397 regulation, 4

State ownership of, 336, 398 see also mineral resources

marine scientific research, 260, 274, 284, 295 Marine Stewardship Council, 302

maritime delimitation, 299, 306–11, 312 allocative function, 252–3

by the cannon-shot rule, 185 continental shelf, 270, 275

equitable principles, 299, 307, 308–9, 312 EEZ, 296

geographic factors, 308, 309 international aspect, 214

relevant circumstances, 307, 308, 309–10 scientific basis, 254

special circumstances, 307, 310 territorial waters, 203

maritime jurisdiction, 205, 214, 221, 274 see also coastal State authority;

jurisdiction; maritime zones maritime powers, 209, 218–9

cannon-shot rule and, 193

influence on development of the law of the sea, 83, 176, 183, 209

freedom of the high seas, 178, 179, 183 maritime zones, 215, 216, 220, 251–312

see also contiguous zone; continental shelf; exclusive economic zone; territorial sea

Mason and Gullet, 344 Massé, 195–6

material dependence, see liberty maximum sustainable yield, 284–5, 287–8,

364, 380, 382, 399

environmental and economic factors, 292, 304

state of fisheries and, 1 New Zealand, 362 United States, 367, 368–9

McDougal, 180, 182 McDougal and Burke, 182, 207 McIlgorm and Tsamenyi, 343 media ownership, 64, 84, 114 Mediterranean Sea, 175 military, 82

resources, 58 bases, 154, 228

use of the sea, 182, 209 Milne, 73

mineral resources, 254

continental shelf, 199, 272, 274, 275, 276, 279, 398

deep sea-bed, 13 territorial sea, 263 transboundary, 279

Mitchell, see Lucy and Mitchell Miyoshi, 277

Molenaar, 304 molluscs, 264

see also ocean quahog; oysters; surf clam monarchy, 50, 180

monitoring, 347, 380, 383–4 biodiversity, 243 Canada, 347, 351 Iceland, 354

New Zealand, 365

territorial use rights in fisheries, 320 stock use rights in fisheries, 331–2 United States, 367

Index 427

monopolies, 43, 49, 67, 85, 166 moral excludability, 28–9, 150, 217,

322–3, 396

morality, 47, 71, 86, 88–9, 107, 108, 151 morality of law, 76, 99

municipal law, see domestic law Munzer, 35, 57–61, 66

national parks, 154

National Research Council, 329, 377, 380, 383 national security, 28, 105

native title, 141–2 natural resources:

allocation, 88–9, 110, 252, 374 common property, 153

control of, 54, 166, 199, 201, 206, 272 conservation, 115, 119, 232, 388 delimitation and, 307, 308, 310 duties, 16, 67, 232, 253, 254, 315, 397 indigenous rights, 345 management, 77, 113, 314, 388, 399 optimum utilisation, 255 protection of, 65, 114, 158, 270 property rights, 269, 271, 299, 400–1 public interest and, 388

regulation, 80–1, 136–7, 232–49, 257–8 shared natural resources, 28, 52, 233, 237,

240, 275, 277–9, 281 spoilage, 36

stewardship, 152, 158–62, 399 use limitations, 315, 397–8, 399 value of, 41, 47

see also fisheries; food; land; marine resources; mineral resources; oil; permanent sovereignty over natural resources; shelter; transboundary natural resources; vital needs; water

natural rights, 30–6, 168, 172, 194–5, 219, 253 navigation, 254, 260, 267–8

appropriation of seas and, 192, 194 De Vattel and, 179

freedom of, 174, 175–6, 210, 297 Grotius and, 171, 172

interference with, 196, 268, 275, 276 limit on property, 199, 261 overflight and, 210, 211

public right, 199 Puffendorf, 191, 192

right of, 264, 268, 270, 291, 311, 399 Selden, 175–6

Welwood, 174

see also archipelagic passage; innocent passage

Netherlands, 184, 225 cannon-shot rule, 172 fisheries, 167–8, 173, 176 maritime policy, 167–8, 172

428 Index

New Zealand:

allocation of fish, 361, 362–3 annual catch entitlement, 360 condition of fisheries, 365 constitution, 357–8

cost recovery, 364

fisheries case law, 361–4, 391 fisheries legislation, 358–61, 363, 364 international obligations, 358

legal system, 357–8 Maori, 357, 361, 384 part-time fishermen, 363

Quota Management System, 359, 361, 362–3, 365

rights based management, 7, 332, 351, 357–65, 379, 389, 392

Treaty of Waitangi, 361 Nicaragua, 206, 210 North Sea, 278

Norway, 7, 139–41, 184, 212 notification, 238

duty of, 234, 237, 238 prior, 237

Nozick, 33, 34–5, 37–9, 299, 387 Nuger, 204

O’Connell, 180–2, 195, 204, 213, 273, 274 O’Neil, 33, 38

obligations erga omnes, 246 ocean enclosure, 5, 174, 266, 321

see also exclusive economic zone; mare clausum

ocean quahog, 368, 374, 377, 379 oceans, 54, 100, 305

appropriation, 177 common pool resource, 1, 2 common property, 153

connection with adjacent lands, 210 control over, 314

development of legal regime, 165–220 exclusive control, 18, 214, 314 exhaustibility, 171, 191

fish farming, 264

juridical nature, 171, 172, 181–3 military use, 182, 209

ownership of, 168, 169, 170, 194, 215, 216 privatisation, 9–10

public trust, 373 regional policy on, 211 regulation, 183, 256, 398 res nullius, 172

resources dependency, 206, 207, 213 status under natural law, 171

see also maritime zones; occupation (oceans)

occupation: continental shelf, 272

labour theory and, 32, 35

oceans, 173, 183, 184–5, 193–4, 195, 252, 260 necessity of, 193

physical, 185 requirements for, 171 symbolic, 185

theory of ownership, 18, 216 transient, 251

utility of, 193

see also effective occupation offshore drilling, 199, 220

see also oil

offshore installations, 263, 264, 295 Ogus, 47, 67

oil, 233, 270, 276, 282 concession, 280 pollution, 81, 371 property rights, 281 supply, 199

see also mineral resources; unitary deposits

Ong, 277–8, 282 Onorato, 277

open access regimes, 1–2, 62, 183 regulatory alternatives, 3 common pool resources, 1–1 high seas, 134

fisheries, 2, 154, 314 rent dissipation, 2

territorial use rights in fisheries, 319, 322 optimum utilisation, 220, 285, 287, 289,

306, 381 order, 9, 119

agency and, 110 definitional problems, 52

environmental protection, 237 forms of, 79, 315

German law and, 130 good order, 51, 54, 55, 67 legal order, 93, 97, 398

Law of the Sea Convention’s ordering function, 255–6, 257

markets and, 21 participation in, 53, 300 political order, 62, 90 promotion of, 151 propriety and, 53, 237

property and, 22, 61, 63, 112, 128 public order, 15, 80, 105

Rawl’s difference principle, 98 second first order interests and, 93 social planning, 52

vital needs and, 54 Ortolan, 196 Ostrom, 153

outer space, 16, 134 output controls, 317, 392

see also individual transferable quotas; quotas; rights-based management

overcapitalisation, 7, 359, 368, 374, 386 overfishing, 1, 286, 400

as a justification for exclusive control of fisheries, 173, 193

cause of, 2–4, 367–8

effect of rights based instruments on, 383, 400

Fish Stocks Agreement and, 287 International Council for the Exploration

of the Sea and, 205 lack of data, 4

Law of the Sea Convention and, 4–5 MSY and, 284–5

New Zealand and, 359

United States and, 366, 367, 367–8, 369 ownership, 171, 172, 193, 195

agency and, 114

Australian fisheries, 337, 338, 339, 343 basis for liberty, 37

biodiversity, 137, 244, 245, 249 business, 50

common pool resources, 1–2 common property and, 154, 155 concentration of, 113, 387 determinable quality, 231 fishing licences, 318, 349 feudal law, 191

home, 50

Icelandic fisheries, 352, 356

New Zealand fisheries, 357, 359, 364 incidents of, 23–4, 67, 154, 162, 389 indigenous rights and, 141 influence of physical attributes of

resource on, 217, 246, 249 innocent passage and, 197 international decisions concerning,

140–1, 263

ITQs and, 324–5, 326, 327, 359, 372 land, 16, 55, 67

liberal, 33, 35, 39, 40, 43, 49, 332 limits on, 30

media, 64, 84, 114 sea-bed minerals, 280, 281 occupation and, 171

of fisheries, 172, 264, 332, 393

of oceans, 27, 168, 171, 172, 173, 191, 194 propriety and, 50, 55

public incidents of, 398 public property and, 154, 155 public trust and, 51 rights-based measures as, 8 sea-bed, 198, 311

stewardship and, 157, 159, 160, 162 territorial sovereignty and, 13, 223–4,

225, 227

territorial use rights in fisheries, 321 United States fisheries, 366, 371, 372 water, 252

Index 429

oysters, 199, 203, 319, 320, 374 ozone layer, 240

Panama, 206, 210 Panama Canal, 225–6 pareto optimality, 42–3 pareto superiority, 42–3 participation,

allocation and, 386 economic, 66

EEZ activities, 298

fisheries management, 347, 350–1, 354, 357, 395

historic, 386

in fishing, 290, 319, 328, 249, 362, 370, 386 legal orders, 93, 95, 115

resource exploitation, 290 social institutions, 92 social order, 53,

political, 66,

principle of (Allott), 300–1 public, 239

stakeholder, 380, 395 universal, 256

paternalism, 126 pearls, 175, 191, 309 Penner, 231

Permanent Court of Arbitration, 188–9, 260, 261–2, 309

Permanent Court of International Justice, 104, 226

permanent sovereignty over natural resources, 115, 221–2, 229, 279 biodiversity and, 136, 243

limits to, 115, 232–48 Persian Gulf, 278 Peru, 207

Pharand, 294

Philippines, 92

Phillimore, 187

physical excludability, 26–7, 253, 322, 399 impossibility of, 15, 27, 387 practicality of, 26–7

obsolescence, 253

relationship with legal excludability, 27, 135, 218, 252, 397

Pildes, 126

piracy, 81, 103, 106, 112

plenary legal communities, 71–83, 105, 111, 144

agency and, 93 coherence of, 74, 80, 83 composition of, 73 definition of, 71–2 European Community, 72 federal entities, 72, 389

heterogeneity of, 73, 74, 80 international community as a, 72–3

430 Index

international public interests and, 74, 75–6, 77–8, 79, 80, 82

jurisdiction and, 100, 104

legal reasoning and, 144, 148–9 national public interests, 72, 74, 75 public function of property and, 113,

126, 396

public interests and, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 83, 120

reciprocity and, 97, 115 rules of law, 73, 74 States as a, 72

third order interests and, 89–90 types of, 72–3

pluralism, 30, 147, 163, 393, 397 compatibility of justifications, 56 coordination, 56

meaning of, 55 morality and, 88

pluralist communities, 73 priorities, 56, 58

property and, 22, 29–30, 55–61, 121, 124, 255, 316, 396, 400

public interests and, 88, 113 pollution, 239, 371

air, 42, 235, 237 chemical, 242

integrated approach to, 300 jurisdiction over, 210, 212 marine, 237, 287, 371

oil, 81

regulation, 162, 212, 260 tax, 354

Portugal, 166–7

positivism, 171, 179, 183, 184, 216–7, 253 international law and, 196–7, 215

law of the sea and, 195 public interest, 85

positive law, 142, 171, 252 claims to fisheries, 217 continental shelf, 276 EEZ, 283

international law, 183, 398 Islamic law and, 262

law of the sea, 216, 253 maritime boundaries, 314 occupation and, 185

property rights and, 138, 140, 194 public interest, 85, 161

Vattel and, 195 Posner, 21, 47

possession, 23, 24, 33, 320, 340 by capture, 371

collective property and, 155 constructive, 324–5, 332 control of territory as, 229, 299 of fish, 264

of licence, 349

of oceans, 185, 192, 193–4, 252 of quotas, 326, 332

of weapons, 16, 131 participation and, 301 stewardship and, 157 stability of, 39

title and, 251 utility and, 58

see also occupation posterity, 157–8 Pound, 127

power, 10, 36, 186, 191, 197 arbitrary exercise, 65 balance of, 176 collective, 25 decision-making, 147

influence of comity on, 101 influence on law-making, 82–3 location of, 248

monarchical, 31, 36, 50, 169, 202 of States, 69, 83, 196, 219

over territorial waters, 196, 206 political, 94, 222

property rights as, 5, 17, 25–6, 152, 301 reciprocity and, 96, 98

sovereignty and, 222–3, 231, 248 to govern, 74–5

practical reason, 128, 163, 316

law as a form of, 28, 138, 165, 397 see also legal reasoning

pragmatism, 180, 201, 272 doctrinal, 172, 176

nature of legal processes, 129, 218, 398 of States, 18, 218

precautionary approach, 287, 302 biodiversity and, 244

precautionary principle, 159, 359, 381, 382, 399

Australia, 334

FAO Code of Conduct, 303 Fish Stocks Agreement, 287, 288 New Zealand, 359, 364

preference maximisation, 45, 48, 56, 58, 396, 400

preference satisfaction, 36, 58, 58, 119 preferential rights, 213

primitive societies, 170 private law:

international law viewed as, 13–4 law of the sea and, 165

market regulation, 67 property and, 11, 17, 342, 349 technique, 301

private property, 21–2, 92, 401 autonomy and, 89 biodiversity, 245, 247, 249

conditions for emergence, 170–1, 191 common pool resources, 1, 3

common property and, 153–4, 170 economic approaches to, 41–2, 43, 44,

45–6, 67 efficiency and, 48, 67

excludability and, 23, 26 government and, 31, 64, 193, 198,

216, 301

influence of physical attributes on, 133, 135, 215

fisheries and, 5, 8–9, 339, 374, 392, 401, 402

international law and, 11, 15, 82, 116, 130, 139, 197, 220, 315, 398

ITQs and, 356, 373, 389 justification of, 30, 67, 314–5, 396 lex situs rule, 142

liberty and, 37–8, 39

limits to, 26–9, 64, 67,114, 138, 150 maritime zones and, 261

natural rights and, 30–1, 32, 35 necessity and, 170

propriety and, 53, 54, 55

public interest and, 89, 112, 113, 114, 115, 121, 131

public property and, 154, 155 reciprocity and, 115 stewardship and, 156, 159–60 territorial use rights in fisheries

and, 321 utility and, 39, 40

see also, ownership; privatisation; property; takings

privatisation, 150, 312, 401 of fisheries, 7, 373, 374, 385 of oceans, 9, 10

productivity, 3, 357, 369, 387 see also efficiency

profit a prendre, 340 fishing licence, 340, 390 mineral licences, 281 see also usufruct

prohibition of harm, 23, 24, 68, 121, 146, 248, 264, 315

biodiversity and, 245 to the environment, 117

mineral exploitation and, 275, 282 stewardship, 157

international environmental law, 234–7 public interest and, 131

property:

collective property, 1, 23, 53, 154–5, 160, 390, 400

joint property, 276, 279, 281 mixed property systems, 152

public function of, 16, 17, 63–117, 120–63, 315, 396

public property, 58, 154–5, 245 social property, 159

Index 431

State property, 154, 398

see also common property; intellectual property; private property

proportionality, 148 propriety, 19, 49–55, 255, 398

continental shelf claims, 202, 220 environmental protection and, 236 EEZ claims and, 207, 215, 220, 299 fisheries and, 353–4, 387

order and, 67 pluralism and 57

public function of property and, 63, 112 scepticism of, 61

territorial sea and, 260–1 prosperity, 347

protected areas, 243

see also habitats protection; special areas of conservation

Proudhon, 32 prudence, 97, 98, 115 public emergency, 68 public fisheries, 7, 385

right of, 357, 366 public goods, 67, 97 public interests, 63–117

categories of, 84–112 common interest theory, 87 community and, 17, 70–83 conflicts between, 78, 83 definition of, 69–70 demands, 69, 70

first order interests, 89, 90–3, 109–10, 114, 117, 122, 150, 158, 233, 249, 389, 396, 397, 399, 401

framework for, 69, 87, 88

international public interests, 74–5, 77–8, 79, 83, 100

labour theory and, 66 liberty and, 66 markets and, 85 morals and, 85–6, 87–9

natural resources and, 65 normative public interests, 87–90 operative public interests, 84–7 preponderance theory, 87 priority of, 64–5, 126–8

private property and, 89, 112, 113, 114, 115, 121, 131

propriety and, 51, 55, 67

public function of property, 68–117 public interest demand, 69–70

second order interests, 89, 93, 104–9, 111, 112, 114, 296

stewardship, 159, 161, 162, 297

third order interests, 89, 91, 93, 94, 101, 110, 111, 112, 117, 256, 297, 396

unitary theory, 87–9 utility and, 66–7

432 Index

public law, 100–1, 301, 392, 401 fisheries and, 350, 391 reciprocity and, 99 reasonableness, 147

Law of the Sea Convention as, 300 public policy, 108

contracts contrary to, 85 lex situs and, 116 propriety and, 51

public trust doctrine, 247 ITQs and, 373–4 propriety and, 51

Puffendorf, 191–3

quieta non movere, 262–3 quotas:

see also by-catch quota; community development quota; enterprise quota; individual fishing quota; individual quotas; individual transferable quotas

Ragoni, 277 rainforests, 12, 92, 240 Rajan, 269

rational choice theory, 44–5 Rawls, 59

principle of justice, 86, 158 Raz, 127, 128

reason dependency, 143, 151, 163, 397 morals and, 151

private rights, 120, 125, 126 public interest, 120, 125, 126 third order interests, 112, 117 Underkuffler, 123, 125, 126 reciprocity, 82, 115, 390, 396, 398

agency and, 96

archipelagic waters and, 268 continental shelf and, 272 definition of, 95–6

diffuse, 97–9, 104, 238 equality and, 95

equivalency of exchanges, 96, 97, 115, 396

examples of, 99–100

Law of the Sea Convention and, 256–7, 312 self-interest, 96, 97

sequential, 97, 98 specific, 96–7, 98 principle of, 95–100 vertical, 98 voluntariness, 96, 97

reefs, 319 Reeve, 155

regional fisheries management organisations, 220, 358

Reich, 92

rent, see economic rent

res communis, 171, 181–2, 183, 193, 195 res nullius, 172, 181–2, 184, 273

res publica, 181–2 Robertson, 63

Redgwell, see Davies and Redgwell rhetoric, 86, 89, 126

Rieser, 373, 376, 377 rights, 121–6, 128–32

interference with, 126 priority of, 122–6

reason dependency, 120, 123, 143 stringency, 123

structural function, 126

relationship with public interest, 120, 128–32

values and, 120, 121–2, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129–30

rights-based management, 7, 8, 305, 311, 319–93, 384, 395, 400

Australia, 333–44, 389, 391, 392 Canada, 345–51, 389

Iceland, 351–7, 389

New Zealand, 357–65, 379, 384, 389, 391, 392

United States, 365–78, 385, 389, 392 see also by-catch quota; community

development quota; enterprise quota; individual fishing quota; individual quotas; individual transferable quotas

Rio Declaration, 236, 237, 239 Rivier, 204

Roman law, 169, 181 public trust and, 51

Rousseau, 194–5 Rudden, 145

Russia, 140, 178, 184, 225

salmon, 185, 205, 289, 320 salt, 191

sanitary laws, 260, 266 Santiago Declaration 1952, 207 scarcity, 133, 191

of labour, 60

of resources, 3, 31, 36, 215, 282 Schachter, 82

Schrijver, 222, 279 science:

basis for decisions, 7, 302, 381, 399, 401

basis for delimitation, 175 biodiversity, 243, 245, 249

influence on regulation, 166, 219, 243, 249, 254, 398

positive law and, 253 Scitovsky paradox, 43

Scotland, 167, 185, 173, 184, 205 Scott, 7

seabirds, 305

seals, 4, 178, 188, 197 secularism, 169, 253

security of expectation, 39–40, 297, 387 security of term, 335

security of title, 327, 332, 335, 379 sedentary species:

continental shelf, 270, 271, 275–6 EEZ, 290

territorial use rights in fisheries and, 320

Selden, 168, 170, 174–6, 177, 191, 193 self-determination, 78, 83, 225

agency and, 111

as a third order interest, 106 group as a community, 73

self-preservation, 170 self-regarding interests, 69, 113, 390 servitudes, 226–7

shareholders, 354 sharks, 305

shelter, 50, 53, 67, 90, 114 shipping, 209, 212

see also navigation

sic utere principle, 11, 99 Singapore, 234

slavery, 86, 106, 108, 114 Smith, 46

social contract, 180, 196 social order, see order soft law, 282

sovereign rights, 249, 280, 311, 398 Australia, 333

biodiversity and, 136–7

continental shelf, 201, 272, 273–4, 281 EEZ, 283–4, 291, 293, 297, 298, 300 influence of physical, legal and moral

excludability, 16 patrimonial sea, 210 territorial sea, 269

see also permanent sovereignty over natural resources; sovereignty

sovereignty, 10–6, 221–49 external, 222, 231

private incidents of, 228–31 internal, 222

limits on, 231–49 sovereign equality, 111

see also permanent sovereignty over natural resources; sovereign rights; territorial sovereignty

Spain, 166–7, 237

special areas of conservation, 131–2 Spitzbergen, 140–1

spontaneous order, 46, 79

Index 433

stakeholders, 387, 395

in fisheries management, 327, 347, 380, 384, 387

involvement in stewardship, 162 New Zealand fisheries, 365

State immunity, 78–9 state of nature, 35, 39 State practice, 225

Bynkershoek, 193 conceptual structure for, 183

continental shelf, 198–200, 274 doctrine and, 179–80, 196 EEZ, 206–14, 282, 294, 296 exclusive fisheries, 202–14

Fish Stocks Agreement and, 289 fisheries regulation, 303 freedom of the seas, 177, 179–80 positivism and, 184

principle of unitization, 277–8 territorial sea, 184–90 territorial transactions, 225–8

State succession, 230 States, 94–5, 111, 230, 266

agency of, 94–5

criteria for statehood, 115 relationship between agency and

jurisdiction, 101, 111 distinguished from population, 95 formal equality, 94, 111

material equality, 94

material independence, 115, 219–20, 230 primary actors, 94

respect for agency of, 234–7 sovereignty as a manifestation of

agency, 223 status quo bias, 44

stewardship, 16, 17, 155–62, 247, 301–2, 397, 399, 402

biodiversity, 246 Canadian fisheries, 350 characteristics of, 152

community development quotas and, 330 conservation, 157–8, 159

definition, 390

distinction from other forms of property, 156, 159–60

duration of proprietary interest and, 332 duties, 156, 157, 159, 160–1, 315

EEZ, 17, 246–7, 282, 292, 297–8, 312, 388, 399

Icelandic fisheries, 357 incidents of, 156–7 Islamic law and, 262, 309 ITQs and, 327, 344, 377

Marine Stewardship Council, 302 New Zealand fisheries, 364 policy, 155

434 Index

preservation, 157, 158–9 propriety and, 51–2, 55 public interests and, 160–2 public trust and, 247 rights, 157, 159–60, 160

territorial use rights in fisheries, 322 stochastic uncertainty, 97, 115

stock use rights in fisheries, 330–32 Stockholm Declaration, 149, 236 straits, 171

Suarez, 208

submarine cables, 211, 268 subsistence, 40, 114

fishermen, 262, 287 means of, 114

first order interest, 90, 396 level of, 90, 110

lifestyle, 329

guaranteeing means of, 31, 66, 67, 90, 114

minimal, 66, 67, 90, 112, 114, 121, 253 surf clam, 368, 374, 377, 379 sustainability:

biodiversity, 136, 243, 244 biological, 334

community development quota, 330 ecological, 334, 336, 402

New Zealand fisheries, 359

of fisheries, 2, 3, 7, 18, 287, 302, 305, 387 of vital needs, 91

priority of, 393, 401 stewardship and, 155, 161, 297

territorial use rights in fisheries, 331 United States fisheries, 370 unsustainable fishing, 286, 331

use of resources, 389, 401 sustainable development, 12, 302

Australia, 334, 336 Sweden, 260

takings, 12, 65, 392

American takings law, 50, 372, 373 see also expropriation

tax, 355 fishing, 354

legitimate interference with property, 40, 130

technology, 49 fishing, 211, 318

influence on regulation, 166, 198, 199, 217, 305

restrictions, 367 terra nullius, 140–2

territorial concessions, 228 territorial jurisdiction, 18, 101, 115

extra territorial jurisdiction, 102 objective, 101

subjective, 101

territorial sea, 259–65 development, 183–98 fisheries, 260, 261, 262–3, 264–5 juridical nature, 259, 160–1

limits, 184, 190, 205, 210, 211, 212, 333 see also innocent passage

territorial sovereignty, 11 agency of States and, 111 continental shelf and, 274 development of, 16

EEZ and, 283 incidents of, 228–31 lex situs rule and, 139

limits to, 4, 231–49, 262, 279 object theory of, 13, 224, 229 property rights beyond, 139–41 relationship to property, 13–6,

222–8, 398 ‘western’ view of, 262

see also permanent sovereignty over natural resources; terra nullius; territory

territorial use rights in fisheries, 319–23 territory, 11

acquisition of, 13, 168

analogy with property, 13–4, 224–8 annexation, 141

appurtenance of maritime zones, 189, 260

attribute of statehood, 101, 115, 225 cession of, 189, 229

jurisdiction over, 101, 104 object theory of, 224

relationship with territorial sea, 260 see also permanent sovereignty over natural resource; terra nullius;

territorial sovereignty; territorial use rights in fisheries

total allowable catch, 284, 379, 380, 399 conservation and management function,

327, 382 exceeding, 380 Iceland, 352

New Zealand, 364 pressure to increase, 350 quotas and, 323–4, 328 reduction, 349, 383 setting of, 292

surplus, 285

United States, 368, 369 Townsend, 330, 331–2 trade, 42, 49, 176, 180

maritime, 183

see also free market

traditional fishing, 261–2, 263, 309 grounds, 5

practices, 370

rights, 261–2, 263, 268

tragedy of the commons, 2, 5, 318, 375–6 criticisms of, 48

fishing and, 8

prevention of, 5, 154, 378, 400 transaction costs, 3, 42, 43, 67 transboundary natural resources, 233, 240,

291, 401 cooperation, 381 status of, 279

transferable dynamic stock rights, 330–1 transit passage, 227

trawling, see fishing treaty law, 180, 193

inter se agreements, 257, 289 interpretation, 289, 298, 308 jus cogens, 107 reservations, 99, 257

third States, 289

Truman Proclamations, 199, 200, 202, 206, 207, 208

trusteeship, 50–1, 247 biodiversity, 246 EEZ, 247

see also public trust doctrine; stewardship Tsamenyi, see McIlgorm and Tsamenyi Tunisia, 278

Tur, 151

Uhlmann, 107–8

unascertained goods, 264, 324, 332, 342, 356 under-fishing, 380

Underkuffler, 122–6

abrogation of property rights, 68 common conception of property, 25, 122 operative conception of property,

122–3, 124

public interest demands, 69 view of rights, 123, 124, 125–6

unitary deposits, 311, 277, 279 United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development, 286 United Nations Conference on the Law of

the Sea 1982, 211, 256, 267 EEZ discussions, 295, 296

influence on maritime claims, 213, 214 negotiation process, 291, 312

package deal, 99, 257, 270 United Nations, 220

Charter, 111

international community and, 79, 80 legal personality, 81

regulation of natural resources and, 81 trust system, 227

United States, 140, 185, 226 agricultural land, 159 Alaskan fisheries, 178, 328–30

allocation of fishing rights, 369, 370, 374–5

Index 435

Behring Sea Dispute, 178, 188, 197 Community development quotas, 328–30 condition of fisheries, 377–8, 379 constitution, 106, 361, 366, 372, 392

cost recovery, 375 Department of Labor, 368

extraterritorial jurisdiction, 101, 103 fisheries case law, 370–5

fisheries legislation, 366–70 Fisheries Management Plans, 366 fishing in Crown waters, 203 intellectual property, 26 international obligations, 205, 365–6 legal system, 366

maritime policy, 152 moratorium on IFQs, 369, 379

opposition to maritime claims, 208 Panama Canal, 225

public trust, 51, 247

Regional Fisheries Management Councils, 366

rights based management, 365–78, 385 Truman Proclamation, 199, 200, 206,

207, 208

universability, 133, 138, 144–5, 150, 163, 397 consequences and, 145

delimitation and, 310

Eritrea/Yemen Arbitration, 262 of law, 71, 315, 391

of rights, 127, 128

of reasons, 138, 144–5, 262 plenary legal communities and, 71

universal values, 55, 87–8, 89, 128, 308 conservation, 289

use of force, 252 use-rights, 170

see also profit a prendre; usufruct usufruct, 321, 324

uti possidetis, 78 utility, 9, 60, 66

Bynkershoek, 193 common property and, 154 continental shelf and, 220 fishing and rights and, 387 ITQs and, 353

liberty and, 37, 38 labour and, 35, 36

efficiency as a measure of, 42 intuitionism, 57 maximising, 43

principle of utility and efficiency, 58–9, 60 property as, 39–41

pluralism, 56, 57 public interests and, 68

values, 9, 10, 16 aesthetic, 46, 47 attribution of, 41, 45

436 Index

basic human, 28, 86, 104–5 category mistake, 47 changing, 143, 149, 255 coherence of, 148–9

communities and, 69, 70–83, 113, 253, 396 conflicts between, 12

cultural, 152 democratic, 68

economic approaches to, 46–8, 56 ecosystem, 378

environmental, 247 EEZ and, 298, 301 framework for, 64, 88

in property institutions, 30 international community’s, 218 judges and, 146

jus cogens and, 109

law and, 11, 19, 51, 150–1, 255, 316 liberal, 64

limits to property, 16, 17, 119 marine resources and, 397, 402 moral, 56, 58, 109–10, 152

pluralism, 22, 46, 113, 121–2, 392, 396 public interests and, 83, 84, 87–9 reciprocity and, 96

rights and 123–5, 129 social, 10, 68 spiritual, 152

Verdross, 108

vital needs, 90–1, 109, 114, 153, 253, 314 biodiversity, 239

conditions for, 90, 397 decisions about, 110

ensuring availability of, 91, 314, 396 environment as, 236

maritime delimitation and, 310 natural resources and, 222 non-living resources, 281 occurrent desires and, 109–10 priority of, 109–10, 162, 249 watercourses, 233

wages, 60 Waldron, 37, 62 warships, 266

water, 90 fresh, 290

ownership, 252 public trust, 51

unboundable nature, 15

vital needs, 67, 90, 114, 233, 281 watercourses, 237, 240

cooperation, 28, 233 equitable use, 233 joint ownership, 225

prevention of harm to, 235 vital needs, 233

wealth, 348 accumulations of, 54, 66 as a moral goal, 46

distribution, 9, 10, 15, 22, 218, 299, 400 equity distribution, 272 enhancement, 30, 48

inequalities in, 15, 38, 39, 41, 272 influence on law-making, 82 international distribution, 81, 220 ITQs and, 354

maximisation, 68

preference dissatisfaction, 59 redistribution, 217, 272, 301, 387 sea as a source of, 189, 220, 299

territorial use rights in fisheries and, 321, 322–3

welfare, 39, 41, 105, 119 comparisons of, 43 efficiency, 42–3 fisheries and, 384 jus cogens and, 109 maximisation, 58, 66 systems, 92

trade and, 49

Territorial use rights in fisheries, 322 vital needs, 114

welfare economics, 44 Welwood, 166, 168, 173–4

Yandle, 365

Yannacone, 159

Yemen, 261–3, 309

Yugoslavia, 274