Дрофа С. Ю., Конишевский Д. В., Кушнарева Н. В.. Учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку для подготовки к занятиям по контролю самостоятельной работы

The first railway locomotives (19th century) were powered by steam, first by burning wood, later coke and coal or petroleum. Because of the steam engine, some people took to calling the steam locomotives themselves «steam engines». The steam locomotive remained by far the most common type of locomotive until after World War II. The age of steam correlates highly to the coal era (pic. 1).

Steam

Pic. 1. Walschaerts valve gear in a steam locomotive (live steam entering the cylinder, expanded (spent) steam being exhausted from the cylinder)

The first steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick, and first ran on 21 February 1804, although it took some years before steam locomotive design became efficient and economically practical. Fairy Queen, built in 1855; plying between New Delhi and Alwar in India, is the longest-running steam locomotive in regular service in the world, but John Bull, built in 1831, is currently the oldest operable steam locomotive. John Bull is preserved in mostly static display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC.

The all-time speed record for steam trains is held by an LNER Class A4 4-6- 2 Pacific locomotive of the LNER in the United Kingdom, number 4468 Mallard, which pulling six carriages (plus a dynamometer car) reached 126 mph (203 km/h) on a slight downhill gradient down Stoke Bank on 3 July 1938. Aerodynamic passenger locomotives from other countries such as Germany and the United States attained speeds very close to this, and this is generally believed to be close to the practicable upper limit for the direct-coupled steam locomotive.

Before the middle of the 20th century, electric and diesel-electric locomotives began replacing steam locomotives. Steam locomotives are less efficient than their more modern diesel and electric counterparts and require much greater manpower to operate and service. British Rail figures showed the cost of crewing and fuelling a steam locomotive was some two and a half times that of diesel power, and the

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daily mileage achievable was far lower. As labour costs rose, particularly after the Second World War, non-steam technologies became much more cost-efficient. By the end of the 1960 – 1970s, most western countries had completely replaced steam locomotives in passenger service. Freight locomotives generally were replaced later. Other designs, such as locomotives powered by gas turbines, have been experimented with, but have seen little use.

By the end of the 20th century, almost the only steam power still in regular use in North America and Western European countries was on heritage railways specifically aimed at tourists and/or railroad enthusiasts, known as railfans or train spotters, although some narrow gauge lines in Germany which form part of the public transport system, running to all-year-round timetables retain steam for all or part of their motive power. Steam locomotives remained in commercial use in parts of Mexico into the late 1970s. Steam locomotives were in regular use until 2004 in China, where coal is a much more abundant resource than petroleum for diesel fuel. India switched over from steam-powered trains to electric and diesel-powered trains in the 1980s, except heritage trains. In some mountainous and high altitude rail lines, steam engines remain in use because they are less affected by reduced air pressure than diesel engines.

Diesel locomotives

Eventually – в конце концов, со временем; to convey – передавать;

exhaust – выхлоп; noxious – вредный;

obviate – избегать, устранять, избавляться; the standpipes – напорные трубы;

towers – вышки;

to replenish – снова наполнять; boon – преимущество, удобство; emissions – выделения.

Steam locomotives were eventually displaced by locomotives using diesel engines. Diesel locomotives vary in the form of transmission used to convey the power from a diesel engine (or engines) to the wheels, the primary types being mechanical, electric, and hydraulics.

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Diesel locomotives require less maintenance than steam, and their exhaust, while still polluting, is less noxious than coal smoke. They require fewer personnel to operate and obviate the standpipes and towers required to replenish steam locomotives at intervals. The dynamic brakes of diesel electric locomotives have proven to be a major boon in mountainous areas.

On the other hand, diesels, unlike other locomotive types, are limited to a single fuel: petroleum. Demand for diesel fuel is high and subject to political and economic shocks. In addition, the exhaust emissions make them unsuitable for underground application, where electric locomotives remain the motive power of choice.

Gas turbine-electric

Alternator – генератор переменного тока; traction motors – тяговые двигатели;

a turboshaft engine – двигатель с турботрансмиссионной передачей; an output shaft – мощный вал;

via – через;

a system of gears – система приводов; prime mover – первичный двигатель;

a piston engine – поршневой двигатель;

to weight ratio – увеличивать коэффициент;

a turbine's power output – энергетическая мощность турбины; drop dramatically – сильно снижать;

rotational speed – скорость вращения; power curve – силовая дуга; subsequent – последующий;

rare – редкий.

A gas turbine-electric locomotive, or GTEL, is a locomotive that uses a gas turbine to drive an electric generator or alternator. The electric current thus produced is used to power traction motors. This type of locomotive was first experimented with in 1920 but reached its peak in the 1950s to 1960s. The turbine (similar to a turboshaft engine) drives an output shaft, which drives the alternator via a system of gears. Aside from the unusual prime mover, a GTEL is very similar to a

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diesel-electric. In fact, the turbines built by GE used many of the same parts as their diesels.

A turbine offers some advantages over a piston engine. The number of moving parts is much smaller, and the power to weight ratio is much higher. A turbine of a given power output is also physically smaller than an equally powerful piston engine, allowing a locomotive to be very powerful without being inordinately large. However, a turbine's power output and efficiency both drop dramatically with rotational speed, unlike a piston engine, which has a comparatively flat power curve.

Gas turbine locomotives are very powerful, but also tend to be very loud. Union Pacific operated the largest fleet of such locomotives of any railroad in the world, and was the only railroad to use them for hauling freight. Most other GTELs have been built for small passenger trains, and only a few have seen any real success in that role. After the oil crisis in the 1970s and the subsequent rise in fuel costs, gas turbine locomotives became uneconomic to operate, and many were taken out of service. This type of locomotive is now rare.

Electric

Externally – снаружи;

overhead pickup – надземное захватывающее приспособление; higher performance – высокие эксплуатационные качества; operational costs – расходы по эксплуатации;

shunting – переход на запасной путь, маневрирование; yards – сортировочные станции;

battery (-powered) locomotives – электровозы; fume – коптить, дымить;

sparks – искры; ignitе – зажигать;

flammable gas – воспламеняющийся газ; maintenance operations – эксплуатационные работы; prohibitive – чрезмерно высокий;

extended runs – длительные расстояния.

The electric locomotive is supplied externally with electric power, either through an overhead pickup or through a third rail. While the capital cost of electri-

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fying track is high, electric trains and locomotives are capable of higher performance and in some cases lower operational costs than steam or diesel power.

The world speed record for a wheeled train was set in 1990 by a French TGV which reached a speed of 515.3 km/h (320 mph).

Some electric locomotives can also operate off battery power to enable short journeys or shunting on non-electrified lines or yards. Battery-powered locomotives are used in mines and other underground locations where diesel fumes or smoke would endanger crews, and where external electricity supplies cannot be used due to the danger of sparks igniting flammable gas. Battery locomotives are also used on many underground railways for maintenance operations, as they are required when operating in areas where the electricity supply has been temporarily disconnected. However the cost and weight of the batteries are prohibitive for using bat- tery-powered locomotives on extended runs.

Magnetic levitation

Magnetic levitation (maglev) – магнитная левитация; electrically powered trains – электропоезда;

float – поддерживать; friction – трение;

shuttle service – маршрутное обслуживание; cablecars – фуникулер;

chassis – шасси.

The newest technology in trains is magnetic levitation (maglev). These electrically powered trains have a special open motor which floats the train above the rail without the need for wheels. This greatly reduces friction. Very few systems are in service and the cost is very high. The experimental Japanese magnetic levitation train JR-Maglev MLX01 has reached 581 km/h (361 mph).

The transrapid maglev train connects Shanghai's airport with the city.

The first commercial maglev trains ran in the 1980s in Birmingham, United Kingdom, providing a low-speed shuttle service between the airport and its railway station. Despite the huge interest and excitement in the technology, the system was closed down due to a lack of spare parts and replaced by cablecars running on modified groundwheel chassis a few years later.

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Experimental

Railcar – поезд;

flywheel – маховое колесо;

battery-driven motor – электроприводной аккумуляторный двигатель; internal combustion engine – двигатель внутреннего сгорания; recharge – перезаряжать;

regenerative braking – регенеративная тормозная система; station stops – остановки;

substantially – существенно;

mainstream timetable service – регулярное обслуживание на основном направлении;

launch – запускать (в эксплуатацию); short link – короткий отрезок пути; junction – узловая станция.

There are other forms of motive power in experimental use. The Parry People Mover is an experimental light rail railcar that is powered by energy stored in a flywheel. The flywheel is powered from an onboard battery-driven motor or internal combustion engine and is also recharged through regenerative braking. A proposed alternative is to recharge the flywheel from external electric motors installed at station stops; although this would increase installation costs it would substantially reduce the weight of the vehicles. It would also still cost less than providing a continuous electrical supply.

Parry People Movers have been tested on several railways, including the Ffestiniog Railway, the Welsh Highland Railway and the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway. The first mainstream timetable service for the flywheel railcar was launched in February 2006 providing the Sunday service on the short link between Stourbridge junction and Stourbridge Town in the United Kingdom.

Unit 4. CLASSIFICATION BY USE

4.1. Study the words, read and translate the text.

Freight locomotives – локомотивы для грузовых поездов; switcher (or shunting) locomotives – маневровые локомотивы; manoeuvrability – маневренность;

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traction power – сила тяги; torque – вращающий момент;

direct drive – прямая передача (прямой привод); gearbox – коробка передач;

transmission ratios – коэффициент трансмиссии; gearing – привод;

feature – здесь снабжены; extensive – обширный;

rack and pinion – зубчатая рейка и шестерня (малое зубчатое колесо пары); rack and pinion railways – система железнодорожной тяги, основанная на

перемещении при помощи зубчатой передачи; tilted relative to the wheels – наклоненный; remains roughly level – выравнивается.

CLASSIFICATION BY USE

The three main categories of locomotives are often subdivided in their usage in rail transport operations. There are passenger locomotives, freight locomotives and switcher (or shunting) locomotives. These categories mainly depend on manoeuvrability, traction power and speed. Freight locomotives are normally designed to provide a high torque and deliver high power levels to the rails, while passenger locomotives are designed to operate at high speeds, typically with lower loads. Mixed traffic locomotives (us: General purpose locomotives) are built to provide elements of both requirements, and trade efficiency for a given job with flexibility.

Most steam engines are direct drive (that is, they have no gearbox), and the effective transmission ratios were determined by the wheel sizes. Thus steam locomotives for freight purposes generally have many smaller wheels, while steam passenger locomotives have larger wheels. With diesel and electric locomotives, the gearing is more flexible, and it is easier to create good general-purpose locomotives.

Special-purpose locomotives

Some locomotives are designed specifically to work mountain railways, and feature extensive additional braking mechanisms and sometimes rack and pinion. Steam locomotives built for steep rack and pinion railways frequently have the boiler tilted relative to the wheels, so that the boiler remains roughly level on steep climbs.

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«Fantasy Job» Programs

Several railroad museums in the United States and in the UK offer chances for visitors to fulfill a childhood fantasy and actually run a real locomotive. One of the earliest and most well known such programs is the Run A Locomotive at the Western Pacific Railroad Museum in Portola, California. The program is so popular that it is often reserved months in advance.

Unit 5. THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVES

5.1. Study the words, read the texts and annotate them.

Made its outing – «вышел в свет»; adhesion – сцепление (колес с рельсами); slipping – скольжение;

colliery – каменноугольная копь; cogged – зубчатый;

engagе – зацеплять; rack – зубчатая рейка;

applу – прилагать, прикладывать; driving wheels – ведущие колеса;

blucher – короткий сапог, старомодный мужской ботинок на шнурке; claim to fame – прославиться;

trial – испытание; submit – предлагать.

The first self-propelling steam engine or steam locomotive made its outing on 13 February 1804 at the Pen-y-Darren ironworks. The machine was designed by Richard Trevithick. The engine was able to pull a load of 15 tons at a speed of about 5 mph. However, adhesion was a problem (iron wheels on iron rails = slipping). This was partially solved by Blenkinsop who in 1811 designed an engine for the Middleton Colliery, using cogged wheels engaging in racks on the railway.

The problem of adhesion was finally solved by William Hedley with a design which applied power to the rails through two sets of driving wheels. The locomotive was called Puffing Billy (рic. 2) and operated at the Wylam Colliery near

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Newcastle. George Stephenson, who lived near this colliery designed his first locomotive – Blucher in 1814 again, for a colliery.

Pic. 2. Side view of Puffing Billy. Deutches Museum, Munich.

Photo by G. P. Landow, June 2000

The first public railway was the Stockton and Darlington Railway, whose first run took place on Tuesday, September 27, 1825 with Stephenson-designed locos, the first of which was called Locomotion. The Rocket’s claim to fame was that it competed in and won a competition now known as the Rainhill Trials. This was in 1829. The directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway invited designers to submit their locomotives to a test for a 500 pounds prize. Besides the Rocket, two other machines competed – Sanspareil and Novelty. Rocket won for its all round competence.

Stephenson’s Rocket.

Wheel arrangement – расположение колес; misconception – неправильное представление; multi-tubular boiler – многотрубчатый котел; heat transfer – передача тепла;

the exhaust gases – выхлопные газы (здесь отработанный пар, also exhaust steam);

a blastpipe – выхлопная труба; to induce – заставлять;

credit – честь; dispute – оспаривать;

fulfill the key requirement – выполнять ключевое задание; simulated – искусственно созданный;

fuel consumption – расход топлива; 18

presumably – по-видимому; fairly – явно;

to be marred – совпадать; casualty – несчастный случай; donate – дарить;

in much modified form – более видоизмененный; state – состояние;

alter – переделывать;

slanted arrangement – наклонное положение; circa (лат.) – приблизительно, около; indisputable – неоспоримый, бесспорный.

Stephenson's Rocket was an early steam locomotive of 0-2-2 wheel arrangement, built by George Stephenson in 1829 (рic. 3).

Pic. 3. A drawing of Rocket

A common misconception is that Rocket was the first steam locomotive. In fact the first steam locomotive to run on tracks was built by Richard Trevithick 25 years earlier, but was not financially successful. George Stephenson, as well as a number of other engineers, had built steam locomotives before. Rocket was in some ways an evolution, not a revolution.

Rocket’s claim to fame is that it was the first «modern» locomotive, introducing several innovations that have been used on almost every steam locomotive built since. In fact, the standard steam locomotive design is often called the «Stephensonian» locomotive. Rocket used a multi-tubular boiler, which made for much more efficient and effective heat transfer between the exhaust gases and the water. Previous boilers consisted of a single pipe surrounded by water. Rocket also used a blastpipe for the first time – using the blast of exhaust steam to induce a partial vacuum to pull air through the fire; credit for the invention of the blastpipe is, however, disputed between Sir Goldsworthy Gurney and Timothy Hackworth.

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