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injured, a team is still available. Horses are alternated every two hours. It is desirable to have a man for each horse. The location of landings and skid trails is extremely important in animal skidding. Horses must be located near a creek to provide drinking water. Horses are the most widely used animals: their advantages over mules and oxen are as follows:
They are more active, more rapid and more intelligent; they are more easily handled.
They are adapted to a wide range of climate, especially, cold weather.
They are adapted to rough and rocky ground as well as to level topography.
The advantages of using animals over tractors are as follows
their mobility
soil damage is low
small landing can be used
no noise pollution
damage to leave trees in particular cuts is low
The disadvantages are as follows:
Maintenance cost continues whether horses work or not
Horses get tired and need breaks; this affects production.
Horses are limited to small logs and diameters; this affects production.
Horses must be fed on weekends and then logging is done.
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In addition to logging which is their principal use, they are employed in logging jobs for:
Hauling sledge in northern winter logging and with 4 or 8 wheelwagons.
Loading logs on wagons, logging railroad and motor trucks
Building forest-roads together with bulldozers and other mechanical devices.
Skidding is now wholly mechanized. Animals are only used in difficult places to take out the logs.
1.Mind the black words in the text, consult a dictionary to translate/pronounce them correctly.
2.Now read the text and translate it. Translate passages 1, 3 in the written form.
3.Divide the black words into 3 groups – nouns (group 1) – verb (group 2) –
adjective (group 3).
4.Make 4 word combinations with the black words from the text.
5.What are the answers to these questions:
1)What is the text about?
2)What does passage 1 speak about?
3)How will you define the key idea of passage 2?
4)Does the last passage give the same information as the last but one passage?
6.Find the key idea of every passage, put them in order to make the plan of the text.
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7.Make the summary of the text paying attention to these standard phrases:
a)The text is about/the text speaks about …
b)First, we can read/learn about …
c)The next part/passage describes …
d)The last part/passage informs us about …
Text 7
SECONDARY TRANSPORTATION. LOADING.
Secondary transportation covers the movement of the wood from the roadside to final landing. It can be a river, railroad, barge or mill. Before tree products are transported out of the forest they must be loaded on some kind of vehicle. Loading is usually done mechanically. In certain regions where the raw material is short and light enough to be handled by one man, loading may be done manually. Frequently also tree products must be reloaded from one type of vehicle to another when a transportation system of two or more stages is used.
Products cut in harvesting may be left at the stump for loading; or they may be bunched so that several can be loaded from one point; or they may be concentrated along roads for skidding. Generally, the greater the concentration of products to be loaded at one point, the more highly specialized is the loading operation. Ordinally only small products are loaded at the stump, because it would be too cumbersome to move a power loader with the capacity to handle heavy products from stump to stump to load them.
Animal power may be also used. Loading may be done with elephants in some south -East Asian countries where these animals are used for skidding purposes.
There are two types of roadside mechanical loaders: those with knuckle boom and grapple and those with log fork (front end loaders) or grapple. Both types are mobile and most of the machines can be used to load shortwood, tree length or full trees, but some have limitations.
Loading must be coordinated with cutting, bunching, skidding or hauling, so it is a very important step in harvesting operations. When loading is slower than hauling for instance the trucks lose time waiting. If loading capacity is greater than hauling capacity, the loader and the crew are idle until an empty truck arrives. Loading is the key stone of an efficient harvesting operation; as it
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usually determines the size of the cutting, bunching, skidding crews, as well as
the number of transportation units needed.
1.Mind the black words in the text, consult a dictionary to translate/pronounce them correctly.
2.Now read the text and translate it. Translate passages 1, 3 in the written form.
3.Divide the black words into 3 groups – nouns (group 1) – verb (group 2) –
adjective (group 3).
4.Make 4 word combinations with the black words from the text.
5.What are the answers to these questions:
1)What is the text about?
2)What does passage 1 speak about?
3)How will you define the key idea of passage 2?
4)Does the last passage give the same information as the last but one passage?
6.Find the key idea of every passage, put them in order to make the plan of the text.
7.Make the summary of the text paying attention to these standard phrases:
a)The text is about/the text speaks about …
b)First, we can read/learn about …
c)The next part/passage describes …
d)The last part/passage informs us about
TEXT 8
HISTORY OF LOGGING
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Logging with oxen was common in the Pacific Northwest region in the 1890’s. After the turn of the century they were replaced by horses, which were faster, easier to handle and they had no horns.
Steam and cables joined forces in the logging industry around the turn of the century with the most original cable logging work accomplished in the Pacific Northwest.
Steampower was gradually replaced by gasoline powered internal combustion engines. These were in turn replaced by diesel engines.
Today’s logger operates highly sophisticated machines with air controls, water-cooled brakes interlocking drums.
Balloon logging was first attempted in Sweden using hydrogenfilled World War 11 barrage balloons.
The first reported testing on helicopters for logging was in Scotland in 1956. Other tests were made in Canada (1957), Russia (1959) and Norway (1 963).
These early attempts were not considered successful primarily because of the limited load carrying capacity of the machines.
1. Mind the black words in the text, consult a dictionary to
translate/pronounce them correctly.
2.Now read the text and translate it. Translate passages 1, 3 in the written form.
3.Divide the black words into 3 groups – nouns (group 1) – verb (group 2) –
adjective (group 3).
4.Make 4 word combinations with the black words from the text.
5.What are the answers to these questions:
1)What is the text about?
2)What does passage 1 speak about?
3)How will you define the key idea of passage 2?
4)Does the last passage give the same information as the last but one passage?
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6.Find the key idea of every passage, put them in order to make the plan of the text.
7.Make the summary of the text paying attention to these standard phrases:
a)The text is about/the text speaks about …
b)First, we can read/learn about …
c)The next part/passage describes …
d)The last part/passage informs us about
TEXT 9
LOGGING METHODS
Logging methods may be divided into three groups according to the nature of the load unit in the initial transportation stage, as follows:
Common (traditional, short-wood) practice. Felled trees are branched, topped and bucked at the stump into logs before skidding.
B. Tree-length method. Trees are only branched and topped at the stump, the trunks being bucked after skidding and transportation.
Full-tree method. Felled trees are skidded intact with crowns on. The stump, where only felling is done is left free of slash. The timber may even be hauled as full trees but more it is branched and bucked or at least branched and topped at the landing.
In many important timber regions of the world the prevalence of the common practice is so great that the ratio between its use and that of the tree-length may be of 100:1. But the benefits of the tree-length logging are evident. There is growing trend in many places toward the tree-length method.
1. Mind the black words in the text, consult a dictionary to
translate/pronounce them correctly.
2.Now read the text and translate it. Translate passages 1, 3 in the written form.
3.Divide the black words into 3 groups – nouns (group 1) – verb (group 2) –
adjective (group 3).
4.Make 4 word combinations with the black words from the text.
5.What are the answers to these questions:
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1)What is the text about?
2)What does passage 1 speak about?
3)How will you define the key idea of passage 2?
4)Does the last passage give the same information as the last but one passage?
6.Find the key idea of every passage, put them in order to make the plan of the text.
7.Make the summary of the text paying attention to these standard phrases:
a)The text is about/the text speaks about …
b)First, we can read/learn about …
c)The next part/passage describes …
d)The last part/passage informs us about
TEXT 10
THE FULL-TREE HARVESTING SYSTEM
Full-tree harvesting systems are those, which deliver complete trees to the roadsides. They are very popular in developed countries due to the overall high man-day productivity of the system and a desire to reduce manual labour to a minimum in the severe working conditions of the stump area.
The trees may be felled manually or mechanically, skidded to roadside, processed to tree-length or short-wood or loaded or transported to mill as complete trees. Manual felling is considered to be cheaper and more desirable than mechanical felling, unless the trees are to be bunched in order to facilitate the next phase of the operation. They may also be felled mechanically with feller-bunchers or with feller-forwarders in which case they are stored on the machines and transported to roadside when a complete load has been collected In several parts of North America complete hardwood trees, growing in the mixture of species, are being felled, bunched, skidded to the roadside and chipped with the portable chipper at that point. The chips are conveyed pneumatically into the a covered truck or van and hauled direct to the mill. The system has been extended on occasion to pine species in southern USA with up to 20 percent of full-tree chips being cooked with clean chips from debarked wood. It’s
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general extension to major operations in coniferous forests at this stage of manufacturing techniques may hinge on development of satisfactory means to separate bark from chips.
The full-tree harvesting system has some advantages over the other two: removes branches and tops from the forest to reduce fire hazard and
leave the area clear for planting;
concentrates many operations at a central point permitting bulk operations- a particular advantage when the trees are small;
has possibility of transportation branches and tops to the mill for use as fuel or in manufacture.
The system has, however, some disadvantages:
the accumulation of branches, at roadside may clutter at the operating area;
removal of branches to roadside will remove both seed cones and nutrients from the forest area;
because branches and tops comprise around 30-40 percent by weight of complete coniferous trees and this increases the road cost.
1. Mind the black words in the text, consult a dictionary to
translate/pronounce them correctly.
2.Now read the text and translate it. Translate passages 1, 3 in the written form.
3.Divide the black words into 3 groups – nouns (group 1) – verb (group 2) –
adjective (group 3).
4.Make 4 word combinations with the black words from the text.
5.What are the answers to these questions:
1)What is the text about?
2)What does passage 1 speak about?
3)How will you define the key idea of passage 2?
4)Does the last passage give the same information as the last but one passage?
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6.Find the key idea of every passage, put them in order to make the plan of the text.
7.Make the summary of the text paying attention to these standard phrases:
a)The text is about/the text speaks about …
b)First, we can read/learn about …
c)The next part/passage describes …
d)The last part/passage informs us about
TEXT 11
THE TREE-LENGTH HARVESTING SYSTEM
Tree-length harvesting systems are whose which deliver delimbed and topped tree stems to roadside, i.e. only the merchantable part of the tree. The trees may be felled by one of the several methods and delimbed in the stump manually or with a delimbing machine, or they may be felled and delimbed with a single machine, working in the stump area. The tree stems may be skidded or forwarded to the roadside, bucked into short wood or loaded to the trailer.
The tree-length system may be applied almost universally. It is particularly applicable in coniferous forests in both temperate and tropical forests. In plantations it may be applied in thinning operations with care and in the final cut. In tropical high forests it is standard logging method, unless short logs have to be made because the skidder cannot drag the entire stem.
In mountainous countries in some parts of Europe on slopes too steep for machines to work, the tree –lengths may be sliced down the hill top first and processed further at the roadside.
The system has some advantages:
no problem with branches accumulating at roadside; no loss of nutrients in the forest area;
higher man-day productivity and wider choice of final products than with the short wood system
wider road spacing, and therefore lower road cost than with the fulltree system.
1. Mind the black words in the text, consult a dictionary to
translate/pronounce them correctly.
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2.Now read the text and translate it. Translate passages 1, 3 in the written form.
3.Divide the black words into 3 groups – nouns (group 1) – verb (group 2) –
adjective (group 3).
4.Make 4 word combinations with the black words from the text.
5.What are the answers to these questions:
1)What is the text about?
2)What does passage 1 speak about?
3)How will you define the key idea of passage 2?
4)Does the last passage give the same information as the last but one passage?
6.Find the key idea of every passage, put them in order to make the plan of the text.
7.Make the summary of the text paying attention to these standard phrases:
a)The text is about/the text speaks about …
b)First, we can read/learn about …
c)The next part/passage describes …
d)The last part/passage informs us about
TEXT 12
THE SHORT WOOD HARVESTING SYSTEM
In short wood harvesting system all the work of converting the tree into the form in which it will be delivered to the mill is done in the stump area. From that point the wood is forwarded to roadside and piled down and loaded on truck or trailer.
The short wood system has been practiced for generations and is still being widely used. For example, about 85-90 percent of the harvesting operations in Sweden are conducted in this manner. Much of the wood in