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3. Can you define the following words? You may use your dictionary if necessary.

5. Arrange the steps of planning in the correct order.

Computer modeling;

discussing the social, economical, environmental benefits and costs; drawing the different alignment options;

refining the selected route to a narrow corridor;

surveying the origins, destinations, and route choices of present traffic.

6. What are the main considerations in road planning? Mark the correct word boundaries to read the text. What is its main idea?

Sheffieldcitycouncilofficershaverecommendedchangestothelayoutofbradfie ldroadinhillsborough.themeasuresarebeingsuggestedbecauseofthe highnumberofpeoplewhohavebeenknockeddowntryingtocrosstheroad.theproposalswillbediscussedatthecouncil'splanningandhighwa ysmeetinglater.twentytwopedestrianshavebeenhurtinthepastfiveyears,

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sixofthosewereseriouslyinjured.thecouncilsaidtheissuewasmanypeoplewere

crossingtheroadawayfromthepedestriancrossings.aspartoftheimprovements,

railswouldbeputalongtheroadtostoppeoplecrossingwheretheyshouldnot.ifap proved,workonthe£150,000schemewouldstartbytheendofjanuary. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/south_yorkshire/7188886.stm

7. Read about USA and Canada road planning and answer the questions:

1.Who is responsible for constructing and maintaining roads in USA and Canada?

2.What is the Hayden-Cartwright Act?

3.What does FHWA stand for?

4.What do engineers do to plan roadway improvements?

Road planning and administration

In the United States, the state governments are responsible for constructing and maintaining interstate highways, U.S. highways, and state highways. Local governments – counties, cities, and townships – are generally responsible for the rest of the road system. In Canada, the provincial governments share the obligation for road planning and construction with local cities and municipalities. Many groups, including road users, business owners, the general public, and environmental groups, have interests and concerns in regard to road construction. The various government agencies involved attempt to balance these concerns when planning a road system.

In the first quarter of the 20th century, roads in the United States and Canada were often little more than dirt paths. These primitive roads were impassable after heavy rains, and automobiles would become stranded in thick mud. At the time, highway agencies concentrated on little more than paving existing rural roads. A more organized program of planning in the United States began in earnest in 1934, when the U.S. Congress passed the Hayden-Cartwright Act. This act provided federal aid for state highway departments to plan in-depth studies. By 1940 most states were examining such factors as road conditions, volume and nature of highway traffic, highway lifespans, and future highway needs. Later highway acts expanded funding to include considerations of state policies and state, regional, and local issues.

Today, federal funding and planning guidelines in the United States are administered by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) of the

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U.S. Department of Transportation. The FHWA distributes funds according to formulas established by Congress and sets general policies for design, construction, operations, and maintenance. The agency does not, however, provide any of these functions. Its basic goal is to provide for a safe and consistent national system of highways. The state departments of transportation or local governments actually plan, construct, and maintain the highway systems.

Local highway agencies include those operated by counties, cities, and townships. Cities operate primarily with local funds, typically under a mayor or city manager. A city’s public works department may be responsible for most road functions, or there may be separate departments for design, construction, and maintenance. Counties and townships, as well as small towns and villages, typically have less complex systems.

In Canada, the majority of roads are constructed and funded by individual provinces and cities, with the federal government playing a minor role. Provincial and municipal governments responded to increases in motor vehicle use during the early part of the 20th century by expanding and improving the road network already in existence. At the time, individual cities were responsible for road construction and maintenance. As automobile and truck use expanded, the provincial governments began to establish highway departments and allocate funds for highway construction.

The Canadian federal government does not play as large a role in highway planning and funding as does the U.S. government. However, in the late 1980s the Canadian federal government instituted the National Highway System, a network of over 24,000 km (15,000 mi) of roads connecting major cities and ports. The federal government also supports highways located on federal property, such as national parks, and maintains the Canadian portion of the Alaska Highway.

In planning roadway improvements, engineers collect data about current roadway use and planned new uses of roads, as well as other information, such as planned construction or nearby development. They also examine the land and decide where bridges or viaducts may be needed to carry the roadway over obstacles like rivers or other roads. Engineers then use computers to simulate or model new roadway designs. Depending on available funding, projects are planned for construction based on the priorities of the highway department and of the state, provincial, or local government in charge.

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8. Find 25 words from the text (across, down). Read out the sentences with the words found.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T 1 I M P R O V E M E N T S B C O M P L E X 2 P U K Y X MW R S Q O H Q Y Y P F I I X 3 B C O N S T R U C T I O N K E L B F K O 4 U Y N H H T U F C G W U P K X P G E W A 5 L B B H C O N S I D E R A T I O N S K D 6W E L L D D M N O F G R X P S J G P L M 7 L C T J R Y F B S M P D L A T E O A G I 8 C O N S T R U C T I N G A U E B X N X N 9 K M S U T T N I A F Z D O W N E R S Y I 10M E Y S V R D T T S F V N H C C F J A S 11 J X S T U T E D E P A R T M E N T S W T 12M F P A O K D K S K V O V O T X X X H R 13 A J O G K M N U N K N L W S X C D A T A 14 I N G E N V I R O N M E N T A L C L H T 15 N U A Y Y M Z D R H G O O Q J N R R E I 16 T R A N S P O R T A T I O N W B I E K O 17 A Q C Y L C U I M B V S D N W A Y A C N 18 I R M U N I C I P A L I T I E S E D B E 19 N U L K I U V X Z X Y N U J H E G Y O O 20 S R C O N C E N T R A T E D B D L I J T

9. Read and study the following words. Make up 3 sentences, using these words.

adjacent – прилегающий, смежный; соседний to alert – привести в состояние готовности amply – достаточно, много

bisect – разрезать, делить пополам blighted – здесь: тесный, скученный to employ – применять, использовать to exert – оказывать давление, влияние

to jam – загромождать, создавать пробку

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preliminary – предварительный proximity – близость, соседство ramp – наклонный въезд, съезд

reconnaissance – разведка, расследование substantial – значительный

survey – обследование, изыскание

10. Use the words given in brackets in the proper tense.

1. As the number of cars (to increase), this through traffic (to cause) increasing congestion. 2. Today, most major city streets (to jam) at peak periods and many (to crowd) for several hours per day. 3. Today, new arteries in urban areas (to locate) generally clear of the existing streets. 4. Spaces as great as several ordinary city blocks (to require) where the design speed of the freeway is high. 5. In some instances no preliminary survey (to require).

11. Find the English equivalents in the text below.

передвижение на автомобиле промышленная зона цель, место назначения скоростная магистраль параллельные линии заметное влияние

периферический, окружной опоясывать, окружать неоспоримый аргумент ослаблять, уменьшать интервал, расстояние полоса движения зона отдыха и развлечений

вертеть(ся), поворачивать(ся) единообразный, одинаковый фиксированный, неизменный землемерная съемка, разведка осмотр, исследование пересечение в разных уровнях крупномасштабный фотограмметрический метод

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12. Find the odd word in each sentence.

1.To relieve congestion widening major arteries is being necessary.

2.By the proper combination of major important radial and circumferential routes, growth can be made to conform to a logical, reasonable pattern.

3.Where several new facilities into the heart of a city are planned, it may be advantageous to locate situation them encircling the business district.

4.Often the best solution is to change the flow of the adjacent city rural streets.

5.Here it is such often desirable to swing entirely clear of the community.

13. Read the text and divide it into several paragraphs, supplying each with a heading.

Highway location and surveys in urban areas

Vehicular travel in the typical city is heaviest along radial routes to and from the business and industrial areas. Volumes increase with proximity to the central areas. In some cases movements can be substantial in other directions also. Generally this travel is over ordinary city streets on which there are business and commercial developments. Through the years, as the number of cars has increased, this through traffic combined with vehicles having local destinations has caused increasing congestion. Today, most major city streets are jammed at peak periods, and many are badly crowded for several hours per day. To relieve congestion widening major arteries is necessary. Where possible, modern practice removes through traffic from the streets to free-flowing, high-capacity freeways or expressways. Today, then, new arteries in urban areas are generally located clear of the existing streets, although they usually follow parallel courses.

Freeway and expressway locations should be related to the master plan for city development, for these arteries will exert marked influence on all aspects of a city’s growth. By the proper combination of major radial and circumferential routes, growth can be made to conform to a logical, reasonable pattern.

Locations for freeways need not pass directly through the central business area of a large city; in fact, for them to do so is often prohibitively expensive. If the routes pass close by, vehicles destined to the central area can traverse the short remaining distance on the streets. Favourable free-

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way routes often can be found in the blighted districts close to the areas of high property values. Where several new facilities into the heart of a city are planned, it may be advantageous to locate them so that they are partially or entirely encircle the business district.

The locations for offand on-ramps connecting freeways with downtown city streets often present serious difficulties. One of them is the extreme cost. Another and more compelling argument is that such close spacing of connections impairs the free-flowing and accident-free characteristics of the freeway. (The clear distance preceding each connection should be great enough that drivers can be alerted and given time for appropriate action. Spaces as great as several ordinary city blocks are required where the design speed of the freeway is high.) Often the best solution is to change the flow on the adjacent city streets to one-way and to provide connections to appropriate pairs of them. Where large volumes must be carried by single ramps, good practice calls for an added lane on the freeway solely for these vehicles.

The ideal right-of-way width for a depressed urban freeway is a full city block. This provides amply for all future needs and for onand offramps. Grade separation for cross streets can be provided without disrupting established development in adjoining blocks. Space remains for developing parks and recreational areas. Then, the existing streets along the boundaries serve local traffic and provide full access to fronting housing. Unfortunately, rights of way of sufficient wide often cannot be taken (partially because funds are not available) and in some cases, rights of way for freeways and expressways have been gained by widening the alleys which bisect the main blocks or by taking a half block including one street and one alley. Alley frontage is of much lower value than street frontage, which makes the over-all cost of such rights of way less.

The location of arterial highways bypassing small communities presents quite a different problem. Here it is often desirable to swing entirely clear of the community rather than to pass between a segment of residential area and the business district.

Procedures of location and surveys on urban projects are much less uniform and fixed. For example, in many instances such data as property location, street improvement may be complete and accurate enough that no preliminary survey is required.

Paired aerial photographs often are the primary reconnaissance tool for urban location. Examination will suggest alignment that avoids highly developed areas of high right-of-way costs. Often preliminary studies for

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grade separation structures and interchanges can also be made from them. Thus, with little field work, the most desirable locations can be selected for further examination on the ground. Then, seldom is an urban survey made in a location free from conflict with motor vehicles on the existing streets, which occasions many delays and is at times actually dangerous to the personnel involved. Many of these problems can be minimized by employing large-scale vertical serial photographs and maps made from the photographs by photogrammetric methods.

14. Answer the questions to the text:

1.Where is the heaviest vehicular travel in the typical city? What is the cause of increasing congestions in the street?

2.What is necessary to do to relieve the congestion?

3.What place do the freeways and expressways take in the master plan of city development?

4.What are the favourable locations for freeways?

5.What is the role of offand on-ramps?

6.What difficulties are there during offand on-ramps construction?

7.What is the best solution of offand on-ramps problem?

8.What advantages has a full city block in highway location?

9.What is the primary tool in surveys for urban location?

15. Replace the underlined words with the equivalents from the text:

Road location, township area, in some instances, industrial zone, the course of jam, heavily crowded streets, to decrease congestion, to locate mainly in … , to have considerable influence on … ,to fit to a pattern, location of connections, the proper action, the best decision, the main reconnaissance.

16.Look through the text about highway design for 2 minutes and pick out the word connected with your speciality.

17.Read the text again and write short sentences that summarize the content of each paragraph.

Highway design

In order to fully understand the design stage, a few standard terms must be defined. A traffic lane is the portion of pavement allocated to a

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single line of vehicles; it is indicated on the pavement by painted longitudinal lines or embedded markers. The shoulder is a strip of pavement outside an outer lane; it is provided for emergency use by traffic and to protect the pavement edges from traffic damage. A set of adjoining lanes and shoulders is called a roadway or carriageway, while the pavement, shoulders, and bordering roadside up to adjacent property lines are known as the right-of-way.

Highway design is the art of anticipating the needs of the cars and trucks that will be using the roadway, and of taking care of these needs when preparing plans for construction. Highway design includes choosing the best width for the road; selecting the degree of curves and steepness of hills; preserving trees, plants, and other natural features in the vicinity; ensuring safe and efficient traffic flow; and designing the finished highway to blend with the natural landscape as much as possible.

In designing a highway, engineers must take into account the area it will serve – industrial, rural, agricultural, or residential. From this information they estimate the type and number of vehicles that will use the completed road. Then they design a pavement that can carry this type of traffic for approximately 20 years without cracking or developing potholes. Design standards for major highways in the United States and in many other countries are prepared by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in Washington, D.C.

Most major modern roads are crowned – that is, they are higher in the middle than at the edges. This crown allows water to run off the roads so that it does not accumulate into large puddles and wash away the pavement surface. The water drains from the pavement to the edges of the road, where the water is carried away by catch basins into ditches or culverts – wide pipes laid under the pavement. These drains and ditches not only catch water that runs off the pavement, but, in areas where the road has been cut through higher ground, they also prevent water from reaching the roadway from surrounding hills and side slopes.

The number of lanes to be built on a highway depends on the number of cars and trucks that will use the road. Country roads that do not carry a large number of vehicles generally have two lanes and a total width of 7 meters. Arterial highways may have four lanes in areas where vehicles enter or exit.

Limitedor controlled-access highways can be entered or exited only at special interchanges, generally on ramps that allow entering traffic to merge smoothly with traffic already on the highway. Limited-access high-

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ways range from four lanes in width to six or eight lanes, and in some cases even more. The New Jersey Turnpike, which carries more than 160 million vehicles a year, is twelve lanes wide near New York City. In some cases the highway may be built on bridges or embankments that pass over the crossroads (elevated highways) or underneath the crossroads (depressed highways). Such highways are known as grade-separated highways.

Many roads today are designed for stage construction. If the road is serving a new business or residential area where traffic is light, planners design it with a thinner, less expensive pavement. Then, as more people and businesses move in and the number of cars and trucks on the road increases, engineers can place additional layers of asphalt or concrete over the original pavement to support the heavier traffic.

In major highways, a median strip – usually a wide, grassy area, sometimes with a barrier or fence – divides the traffic going in either direction. Where there is enough land available on either side of the traffic lanes, modern highways are built with wide shoulders and off-road areas. Thus, disabled vehicles and cars that skid or lose control have room to stop safely. Light posts and signs can be set back far enough from the traffic lanes to avoid posing a hazard to traffic, and the wide shoulder area provides a natural barrier to lessen the amount of air and noise pollution that reaches homes and businesses.

Check your answers (Ex. 8 p. 63)

administration (t4-v), already (r13-v), based (p16-v), become (b5-v), complex (n1-h), concentrated (c20-h), considerations (e5-h), constructing (a8-h), construction (b3-h), data (q13-h), environmental (d14-h), existence (o3-v), funded (g7-v), improvements (a1-h), late (m7-h), lifespans (r1-v), maintains (a12-v), most (n11-v), municipalities (c18-h), owners (m9-h), role (l11-v), departments (c11-h), states (i7-v), transportation (a16-h), well (a6-h)

18. Study the list of paragraph headings and match them with the summary sentences you have written.

A The number of lanes

B Standard terms

C Elements of highway design

D Pavement

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