L e c t u r e 7. Syntax of a composite sentence: the compound sentence. The structure and types of semi-composite sentences in modern english

I. The problem of a compound sentence as a polypredicative unit.

II. The structure of a semi-composite sentence. Types of semi-composite

sentences.

I. The problem of a compound sentence as a polypredicative unit.

Compound sentence is a composite sentence, the clausal parts of which are equal in their status and are connected on the principle of coordination. The main semantic relations between the clauses in the compound sentence are copulative (соединительные), adversative (противительные), disjunctive (разделительные), causal (причинные), consequential (следственные), resultative (результативные). Similar relations are observed between independent sentences in the text. Proceeding from this fact some linguists deny the existence of the compound sentence as a polypredicative unit (for details see: Иофик Л.Л. Сложное предложение в новоанглийском языке. – Л., 1968). But this idea should be rejected on account of both syntactic and semantic difference between the compound sentence and the corresponding sequence of independent sentences in the text. The compound sentence denotes the closeness of connection between the reflected events, while the independent sentences present the looseness of this connection.

The first clause in the compound sentence is called leading and the successive clause is sequential. From the structural point of view the connection between the clauses can be either syndetical (e.g.: She did it on her own initiative, but no one noticed it), or asyndetical (e.g.: It was too late, the papers were destroyed.)

From a semantico-syntactical point of view the connection between clauses can be regarded as marked or unmarked.

The unmarked coordination is realized by the coordinative conjunction “and” and also asyndetically. The semantic nature of the unmarked connection is not explicitly specified. The unmarked connection presents mainly copulative and enumerative relations, e.g.: Police troops engaged in battle with a militant group of 15 people and six of the militants were killed. Police troops engaged in battle with a militant group of 15 people, six of the militants were killed.

The broader connective meanings of these constructions can be exposed by equivalent marked connectors: the sentence “I had to stay at home, he was about to come.” presents causal relation which is explicated in the construction “I had to stay at home, for (because) he was about to come.”

The marked coordination is effected by the connectors. Each semantic relation is marked by the semantics of the connector. In particular, connectors

- but, yet , still, however express adversative relations;

- the discontinuous connectors both…and, neither … nor express correspondingly positive and negative copulative relations;

- the connectors so, therefore, consequently express causal consequence.

Compound sentence can often be transformed into complex sentences, because coordinative connectors and subordinative ones correlate semantically, e.g., the sentence “ The place had a sinister look, and (so) we decided to leave the Marbles as soon as possible. ” may be transformed into a complex one: “We decided to leave the Marbles as soon as possible because the place had a sinister look.” – the sentence exposes causal relation (семантическая маркированность связок увеличивается от

“and”, “so” в сложносочиненном к “because” в сложноподчиненном).

Thus, the subordinative connection is regularly used as a diagnostic model for the coordinative connection, since the latter is semantically less “refined”, i.e. more general. The diagnostic role of the subordinative connections is especially important for the unmarked coordination. The correlation between the complex and compound sentences gives the reason to speak about syntactic synonymy of the level of the composite sentence.

II. The structure and types of semi-composite sentences.

The described composite sentences are formed by minimum 2 clauses each having a subject and a predicate of its own. It means that the predicative lines in these sentences are expressed separately and explicitly. Alongside of these completely composite sentences there exist polypredicative constructions in which one predicative line is not explicitly or completely expressed. These sentences, containing 2 or more predicative lines, which are presented in fusion with one another, are called semi-composite sentences. One of this lines can be identified as the leading while the others make their semi-predicative expansion of the sentence. The semi-composite sentence presents an intermediary construction between the composite sentence and the simple sentence. Its surface structure is similar to that of an expanded simple sentence because it displays only one completely expressed predicative line. Its deep structure is similar to that of a composite sentence since it is derived from more than one base sentences, e.g.: She saw him dancing. – is derived from 2 base sentences: “She saw him. He was dancing”; Trapped by the fire, the animal could hardly escape. - ( adverbial, not attributive, as it can be transformed into “As the animal was trapped by the fire, it could hardly escape”) – is derived from: “The animal was trapped by the fire. The animal could hardly escape”.

According to the structure of the semi-composite sentences, they are divided into semi-complex and semi-compound ones, which correspond to the proper complex and compound sentences.

The semi-complex sentence is built up on the principle of subordination. It is derived from 2 or more base sentences, one is matrix and the other is insert. The matrix sentence becomes the dominant part of the resulting construction and the insert sentence – its subordinate semi-clause. The insert sentence becomes embedded in one of the syntactic positions of the matrix sentence, e.g.: I could see a tall man, coming in our direction.

(- embedded in the attributive position)

The semi-compound sentence is built up on the principle of coordination. It is derived from 2 or more base sentences having an identical element. These sentences being fused into a semi-compound construction share this element either syndetically or asyndetically. These are sentences with homogeneous (coordinated) subjects or predicates, e.g.: I composed my thoughts and gave a proper answer. – I composed my thoughts. I gave a proper answer.

The semi-complex sentences fall into a number of subtypes according to the character of predicative fusion. Predicative units can be fused by the process of position-sharing (word-sharing) or by the process of direct linear expansion. The sentences based on position-sharing are divided into those of subject-sharing and those of object-sharing.

The semi-complex sentences of subject-sharing are built round the common subject, e.g.: She entered the room an unhappy woman.- She entered the room. + She was an unhappy woman.

In the position of the predicative of the construction different classes of words are used: 1) nouns, e.g.: He turned up at the party a handsome, grown-up man.

2) adjectives, e.g.: The wind blew cold.

3) participles both present and past, e.g.: She appeared bewildered. He stood staring at her (во всех случаях заполняется именная часть составного сказуемого матричного предложения).

Semi-complex sentences of object-sharing are built up round the word which performs the function of the object in the matrix sentence and that of the subject in the insert sentence, e.g.: She saw him coming. She saw him + come.

The adjunct to the shared object is expressed by:

1. an infinitive, e.g.: She let him come in.

2. a present or past participle, e.g.: I’ve never seen the man acting like that.

I’ve never heard the story told like that.

3. a noun, e.g.: He announced the performance a flop.

4. an adjective, e.g.: He cooked the stove black (заполняется позиция дополнения, определения, обстоятельства в матричной конструкции).

The semantic relations between the 2 connected events expressed by the object-sharing sentence can be of three basic types:

- simultaneity in the same place, e.g.: She saw him dancing;

- cause and result, e.g.: I helped him out of the car;

- mental attitude, e.g.: I find the place great.

The sentences based on semi-predicative linear expansion fall into those of attributive complication, adverbial complication, nominal-phrase complication.

Semi-complex sentences of attributive complication are derived from 2 base sentences. The insert sentence drops out its subject and is transformed into a semi-predicative post-positional attribute to any notional part of the matrix sentence.

The attributive semi-clause may contain:

1. a past participle, e.g.: That was the book written by a famous French writer.

2. present participle, e.g.: Soon we found a room opening onto the sea.

3. an adjective, e.g.: I loved the place, calm and romantic.

Semi-complex sentences of adverbial complication are derived from 2 base sentences, one of which (the insert one) is reduced and performs an adverbial function in the matrix sentence, e.g.:

1. When a young girl, she liked to travel on foot.

2. Being late, we failed to see the beginning of the film.

3. The windows being closed, she did not hear the noise in the street.

Semi-complex sentences of adverbial complication are classed into:

- conjoint (совмещенные) constructions, where the subject of the insert sentence is identical with that of the matrix sentence , as in (1,2);

- absolute constructions, where the subjects of the insert and the matrix sentences are not identical, as in (3).

Conjoint adverbial semi-clauses are introduced by conjunctions, expressing temporal, local, causal, conditional, comparative relations; or are joined to the dominant clause asyndetically, revealing temporal or causal semantics, e.g.: Being tired, I could not read the article (causal semi-clause, it can be transformed into “As I was tired I could not read...”) (for more examples see Bloch M.Y. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. - p. 349).

Absolute adverbial semi-clauses are joined asyndetically or by the conjunction with, revealing temporal, causal, circumstantial semantics, e.g.: With all these people waiting for me, I could not postpone the meeting (causal semi-clause).

Semi-complex sentences of nominal phrase complication are derived from 2 base sentences , one of which is partially nominalized and performs one of the nominal (subject or object positions) or prepositional adverbial functions in the matrix sentence. The nominalization can be of 2 types: the gerundial nominalization and the infinitival nominalization, e.g.:

1. His coming late annoyed everybody. - The fact that he came late …

2. For him to come so late was unusual.- It was unusual that he came late.

3. Let’s consider our going to the country.

Gerundial and infinitival phrases in these examples are used in nominal semi-clauses, performing either the function of subject (as in “His coming late…” and “For him to come…”) or that of object (as in “Let’s consider our…).

In contrast with infinitival phrases, gerundial phrases perform the function of adverbial and are used with prepositions, e.g.: She went away without saying a word. – As she went away she didn’t say a word.

The prepositional use of gerundial adverbial phrases differentiates it from the participial adverbial phrase as a constituent of the semi-complex sentence of adverbial complication.

Semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination. Semi-compound sentence is derived from 2 base sentences having an identical element performing the syntactic function of the subject or that of the predicate. The semi-compound sentences fall into those with coordinated subjects or coordinated predicates with syndetic or asyndetic connection.

The semi-compound sentence of subject coordination is derived from base sentences having identical predicates, e.g.: First Simon entered the room and then his friend.

The semi-compound sentence of predicate coordination is derived from base sentences having identical subjects, e.g.: She sat down and looked up at him.

He opened the door to see a young woman outside.

The syndetic formation of semi-compound sentences with coordinated predicates is effected by pure conjunctions, such as: “and” (copulative); “but”, “or”, “nor” (adversative); “both … and” (simple copulative relation); “not only…but also” (copulative antithesis); “either … or” (disjunctive); “neither… nor” (copulative exclusion); and by conjunctive adverbials such as: “then” (action ordering), “so” (consequence), “just” (limitation), “only” (limitation), “yet” (adversative-concessive),

e.g.: They can neither read nor write, nor comprehend such concepts., (for more examples see Bloch M.Y. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. - p. 354-355).

Thus, the semantic relations which are expressed by conjunctions and conjunctive adverbials are as follows: copulative connection of events, contrast, disjunction, consequence, limitation:

- copulative: and; both…and (simple copulative)

not only …but (copulative antithesis)

neither … nor (copulative exclusion)

- disjunction: either …or;

- consequence: so;

- adversative or contrast: but, yet, still, however;

- limitation: just, only.

The asyndetic formation of the semi-compound sentence with coordinated predicates is close to the syndetic “and”-formation (without a definite mark of the semantic relations). The central connective meaning of the asyndetic connection of predicative parts is enumeration of events, either parallel or consecutive,

e.g.: The crowd shouted, pushed, elbowed at the doors (parallel);

He stopped at the shop for a minute, cast a glance at the shop-window, made some recommendations (consecutive).

In conclusion it should be stressed that alongside of the complete composite sentences there exist in Modern English semi-composite sentences in which polypredication is expressed in a fused implicit way.