Answers and Explanations

8.  The answer is B [V B 8]. Myasthenia gravis is characterized by a decreased density of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors at the muscle end plate. An acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor blocks degradation of ACh in the neuromuscular junction, so levels at the muscle end plate remain high, partially compensating for the deficiency of receptors.

9.  The answer is D [III B 2 d]. Lysis of the patient’s red blood cells (RBCs) was caused by entry of water and swelling of the cells to the point of rupture. Water would flow into the RBCs if the extracellular fluid became hypotonic (had a lower osmotic pressure) relative to the intracellular fluid. By definition, isotonic solutions do not cause water to flow into or out of cells because the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of the cell membrane. Hypertonic solutions would cause shrinkage of the RBCs. 150 mM NaCl and 300 mM mannitol are isotonic. 350 mM mannitol and 150 mM CaCl2 are hypertonic. Because the reflection coefficient of urea is <1.0, 300 mM urea is hypotonic.

10.  The answer is E [IV E 3 a]. Because the stimulus was delivered during the absolute refractory period, no action potential occurs. The inactivation gates of the Na+ channel were closed by depolarization and remain closed until the membrane is repolarized. As long as the inactivation gates are closed, the Na+ channels cannot be opened to allow for another action potential.

11.  The answer is B [II A]. Flux is proportional to the concentration difference across the membrane, J = −PA (CA − CB). Originally, CA − CB = 10 mM − 5 mM = 5 mM. When the urea concentration was doubled in solution A, the concentration difference became 20 mM − 5 mM = 15 mM or three times the original difference. Therefore, the flux would also triple. Note that the negative sign preceding the equation is ignored if the lower concentration is subtracted from the higher concentration.

12.  The answer is D [IV B 3 a, b]. The Nernst equation is used to calculate the equilibrium potential for a single ion. In applying the Nernst equation, we assume that the membrane is freely permeable to that ion alone. ENa+ = 2.3 RT/zF log Ce/Ci = 60 mV log 140/14 = 60 mV log 10 = 60 mV. Notice that the signs were ignored and that the higher concentration was simply placed in the numerator to simplify the log calculation. To determine whether ENa+ is +60 mV or −60 mV, use the intuitive approach—Na+ will diffuse from extracellular to intracellular fluid down its concentration gradient, making the cell interior positive.

13.  The answer is E [IV E 2 d]. The hyperpolarizing afterpotential represents the period during which K+ permeability is highest, and the membrane potential is closest to the K+

equilibrium potential. At that point, K+ is closest to electrochemical equilibrium. The force driving K+ movement out of the cell down its chemical gradient is balanced by the force driving K+ into the cell down its electrical gradient.

14.  The answer is A [IV E 2 b (1)–(3)]. The upstroke of the nerve action potential is caused by opening of the Na+ channels (once the membrane is depolarized to threshold). When the Na+ channels open, Na+ moves into the cell down its electrochemical gradient, driving the membrane potential toward the Na+ equilibrium potential.

15.  The answer is D [IV E 2 c]. The process responsible for repolarization is the opening of K+ channels. The K+ permeability becomes very high and drives the membrane potential toward the K+ equilibrium potential by flow of K+ out of the cell.

16.  The answer is D [IV E 4 b]. Myelin insulates the nerve, thereby increasing conduction velocity; action potentials can be generated only at the nodes of Ranvier, where there are breaks in the insulation. Activity of the Na+–K+ pump does not directly affect the formation or conduction of action potentials. Decreasing nerve diameter would increase internal resistance and, therefore, slow the conduction velocity.

17.  The answer is D [III A, B 4]. Solution A contains both sucrose and urea at concentrations of 1 mM, whereas solution B contains only sucrose at a concentration of 1 mM. The calculated osmolarity of solution A is 2 mOsm/L, and the calculated osmolarity of

solution B is 1 mOsm/L. Therefore, solution A, which has a higher osmolarity, is hyperosmotic

with respect to solution B. Actually, solutions A and B have the same effective osmotic pressure (i.e., they are isotonic) because the only “effective” solute is sucrose, which has the same concentration in both solutions. Urea is not an effective solute because its reflection coefficient is zero.

18.  The answer is A [II A 1, C 1]. Only two types of transport occur “downhill”—simple and facilitated diffusion. If there is no stereospecificity for the d- or l-isomer, one can conclude that the transport is not carrier mediated and, therefore, must be simple diffusion.

19.  The answer is B [II A 4 a–c]. Increasing oil/water partition coefficient increases solubility in a lipid bilayer and therefore increases permeability. Increasing molecular radius and increased membrane thickness decrease permeability. The concentration difference of the solute has no effect on permeability.

20.  The answer is A [IV E 1–3]. Blockade of the Na+ channels would prevent action potentials. The upstroke of the action potential depends on the entry of Na+ into the cell through these channels and therefore would also be reduced or abolished. The absolute refractory period would be lengthened because it is based on the availability of the Na+ channels. The hyperpolarizing afterpotential is related to increased K+ permeability. The Na+ equilibrium potential is calculated from the Nernst equation and is the theoretical potential at electrochemical equilibrium (and does not depend on whether the Na+ channels are open or closed).

21.  The answer is D [V B 5]. Binding of acetylcholine (ACh) to receptors in the muscle end plate opens channels that allow passage of both Na+ and K+ ions. Na+ ions will flow into the cell down its electrochemical gradient, and K+ ions will flow out of the cell down its electrochemical gradient. The resulting membrane potential will be depolarized to a value that is approximately halfway between their respective equilibrium potentials.

22.  The answer is D [V C 2 b]. An inhibitory postsynaptic potential hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, taking it farther from threshold. Opening Cl− channels would hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane by driving the membrane potential toward the Cl− equilibrium potential (about −90 mV). Opening Ca2+ channels would depolarize the postsynaptic membrane by driving it toward the Ca2+ equilibrium potential.

23.  The answer is C [II D 2 a]. Inhibition of Na+, K+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) leads to an increase in intracellular Na+ concentration. Increased intracellular Na+ concentration decreases the Na+ gradient across the cell membrane, thereby inhibiting

Na+–Ca2+ exchange and causing an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Increased intracellular Na+ concentration also inhibits Na+–glucose cotransport.

24.  The answer is B [VI B 1–4]. The correct sequence is action potential in the muscle membrane; depolarization of the T tubules; release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR); binding of Ca2+ to troponin C; cross-bridge formation; and splitting of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

25.  The answer is D [II D 2 a, E 1]. In the “usual” Na+ gradient, the [Na+] is higher in extracellular than in intracellular fluid (maintained by the Na+–K+ pump). Two forms of transport are energized by this Na+ gradient—cotransport and countertransport. Because glucose is moving in the same direction as Na+, one can conclude that it is cotransport.

26.  The answer is A [VI A 3]. In the mechanism of excitation–contraction coupling, excitation always precedes contraction. Excitation refers to the electrical activation of the muscle cell, which begins with an action potential (depolarization) in the sarcolemmal membrane that spreads to the T tubules. Depolarization of the T tubules then leads to the release of Ca2+ from the nearby sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), followed by an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, binding of Ca2+ to troponin C, and then contraction.

27.  The answer is C [V C 2 a, b]. γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine, glutamate, serotonin, and histamine are excitatory neurotransmitters.

28.  The answer is E [II D 2]. All of the processes listed are examples of primary active transport (and therefore use adenosine triphosphate [ATP] directly), except for absorption of glucose by intestinal epithelial cells, which occurs by secondary active transport (i.e., cotransport). Secondary active transport uses the Na+ gradient as an energy source and, therefore, uses ATP indirectly (to maintain the Na+ gradient).

29.  The answer is E [VI B]. Rigor is a state of permanent contraction that occurs in skeletal muscle when adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels are depleted. With no ATP bound, myosin remains attached to actin and the cross-bridge cycle cannot continue. If there were no action potentials in motoneurons, the muscle fibers they innervate would not contract at all, since action potentials are required for release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). When intracellular Ca2+ concentration increases, Ca2+ binds troponin C, permitting the cross-bridge cycle to occur. Decreases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration cause relaxation.

30.  The answer is B [V C 4 b (3)]. Dopaminergic neurons and D2 receptors are deficient in people with Parkinson disease. Schizophrenia involves increased levels of D2 receptors. Myasthenia gravis and curare poisoning involve the neuromuscular junction, which uses acetylcholine (ACh) as a neurotransmitter.

31.  The answer is C [III A]. Osmolarity is the concentration of particles (osmolarity = g × C). When two solutions are compared, that with the higher osmolarity is hyperosmotic. The 1 mM CaCl2 solution (osmolarity = 3 mOsm/L) is hyperosmotic to 1 mM NaCl (osmolarity = 2 mOsm/L). The 1 mM glucose, 1.5 mM glucose, and 1 mM sucrose solutions are hyposmotic to 1 mM NaCl, whereas 1 mM KCl is isosmotic.

32.  The answer is C [II D c]. H+ secretion by gastric parietal cells occurs by H+–K+ adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase), a primary active transporter.

33.  The answer is F [IV E 2]. Elevated serum K+ concentration causes depolarization of the K+ equilibrium potential and therefore depolarization of the resting membrane potential in skeletal muscle. Sustained depolarization closes the inactivation gates on Na+ channels and prevents the occurrence of action potentials in the muscle.

34.  The answer is C [VII B]. The steps that produce contraction in smooth muscle occur in the following order: various mechanisms that raise intracellular Ca2+ concentration, including depolarization of the sarcolemmal membrane, which opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, and opening of ligand-gated Ca2+ channels; Ca2+-induced Ca2+ released from SR; increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration; binding of Ca2+ to calmodulin; increased myosin-light- chain kinase; phosphorylation of myosin; binding of myosin to actin; cross-bridge cycling, which produces contraction

35.  The answer is E [IV C]. Data sets A and F have no difference between membrane potential (Em) and EK and thus have no driving force or current flow; although data set F has the higher K+ conductance, this is irrelevant since the driving force is zero. Data sets C, D, and E all will have outward K+ current, since Em is less negative than EK; of these, data set E will have the largest outward K+ current because it has the highest driving force. Data set B will have inward K+ current since Em is more negative than EK.

*Somatic nervous system has been included for comparison. ACh = acetylcholine.

*Except sweat glands, which use ACh.

Figure 2.1 Organization of the autonomic nervous system. ACh = acetylcholine; CNS = central nervous system.