Neolithic period

A major change occurred c. 4000 BC with the introduction of agriculture by Neolithic immigrants from the coasts of western and possibly northwestern Europe. They were pastoralists as well as tillers of the soil. Tools were commonly of flint won by mining, but axes of volcanic rock were also traded by prospectors, exploiting distant outcrops. The dead were buried in communal graves of two main kinds: in the west tombs were built out of stone and concealed under mounds of rubble; in the stoneless eastern areas the dead were buried under long barrows (mounds of earth), which normally contained timber structures. Other evidence of religion comes from enclosures (e.g., Windmill Hill, Wiltshire), which are now believed to have been centres of ritual and of seasonal tribal feasting. From them developed, late in the 3^rd millennium, more clearly ceremonial ditch-enclosed earthworks, known as henge monuments. Some, like Durrington Walls, Wiltshire, are of great size and enclose subsidiary timber circles. British Neolithic culture, thus, developed its own individuality.

From Encyclopedia Britannica

by Sheppard Sunderland Frere, 2004

Notes:

¹ Mesolithic ["mesəu'liθik] – a period relating to or denoting the middle part of the Stone Age, between the Paleolithic and Neolithic.

² Ice Age – an "ice age" or, more precisely, "glacial age" is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers.

³ Anglesey, Isle of ['aŋg(ə)lsi] – an island and county off the northwest coast of Wales, with a predominantly Welsh-speaking population.

⁴ Megalithic ["megə'liθik] – structures made of large stones utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement. The word 'megalith' comes from the Ancient Greek meaning “great stone”.

⁵ Neolithic ["ni:ə(u)'liθik] – Neolithic Era or Period or New Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology beginning about 9500 BC in the Middle East, that is traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age.

⁶ Bronze Age – an archaeological era corresponding to various time periods, whenever a culture has discovered the manufacture of bronze. It is regarded as the second part of a three-age system for prehistoric societies.

⁷ BCE – Before the Christian Era

⁸ Druids – members of the priestly class in Britain, Ireland and Gaul and possibly other parts of Celtic western Europe during the Iron Age.

Exercises

1. Pronounce the following words correctly.

Motives, landmass, circa, period, tundra, mountainous, route,

Mediterranean, prehistoric, administrative, tomb.

II. Give the Russian equivalents to the following English words and word combinations.

Apart from; to derive from; references; exact dates; available; the cutting of the land; insular; to absorb; successive continental cultures; within the ambit of the continent; reindeer; ridges; axes; tillers of the soil; evidence.

III. Give the English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations.

Исследование; устанавливать (истину); поселение; доступный, достижимый; около, приблизительно; влияние, воздействие; усваивать, перенимать; морские пути; постепенное улучшение; замещение, смена; олень благородный; лось; пастухи; кремень; огораживать; вспомогательный, дополнительный; указывать.

IV. Match the date with the certain historical event(s).

• 43 AD

• 5^th century AD

• c.6000 - 5000 BC

• c. 11000 BC

• by 100 BCE

• 4000 BC

• late 3^d millennium

V. Give definitions of the words below.

Сonquest, archeology, culture, geography, valley, island, immigrant.

VI. Find synonyms in the texts discussed.

Board, way, improvement, to receive, dwelling, eventually, to work,

to happen.

VII. Find antonyms in the texts discussed.

Modern, flat (adj.), decline, to reject, closed to, near (adj.), to ruin, separating.

VIII. Match the two parts according to the texts under consideration and translate the following word combinations into Russian.

1. short a. insight

2. migrating b. chambers

3. adjacent c. outcrops

4. hill d. monuments

5. valuable e. references

6. low f. hunters

7. trading g. continent

8. burial h. structures

9. predominantly i. areas

10. distant j. contacts

11. timber k. agricultural

12. henge l. ridges

IX. Express your agreement or disagreement with the following statements using one of the suggested conversational phrases.

Agreement:

I’m also convinced that …

That’s just what I think …

Yes, indeed …

You are perfectly right …

I’m of the same opinion …

Disagreement:

I’m sorry, you don’t seem to understand …

There seems to be some contradictions …

That’s interesting but I think …

Let’s look at it from another point of view …

I see your point of view, but …

I agree with you on the whole, but …

1. Britain truly emerged into the light of history only after the Norman conquest in 1066.

2. After the cutting of the land bridge migration became more easily accessible to large numbers.

3. The fertile southeast was less receptive of influence from the adjacent continent than were the less-accessible hill areas of the west and north.

4. Trading contacts with Ireland were established early and the island lay on a prehistoric sea route linking the Europe with eastern countries.

5. Highly exposed to invasion from the sea the island was attacked by Irish, Saxon, Viking and Norman venturers.

6. Neolithic immigrants from the coasts of western and possibly north-western Europe were warriors primarily.