- •English lexicology a course of lectures
- •Introduction
- •1. Lexicology as a branch of linquistics
- •2. Kinds of lexicology
- •3. Links of Lexicology with other branches of Linguistics
- •Lecture 1. Word-meaning
- •1.1. Semantics as a branch of Lexicology studing meanihg
- •1.2. Approaches to the study of meaning
- •1.2.1. Referential approach to meaning
- •1.2.2. Functional approach to meaning
- •1.3. Types of word-meaning
- •1.3.1. Grammatical meaning
- •1.3.2. Lexical meaning
- •1.3.3. Part-of-speech meaning
- •1.3.4 Denotative, significative and connotative meanings
- •1.3.5. Connotative meaning
- •1.3.6. Emotive charge and sociostylistic reference of words
- •1.3.7. Pragmatic meaning
- •1.4. Types of morpheme-meaning
- •1.4.1. Lexical meaning of morphemes
- •1.4.2. Functional or part-of-speech meaning of morphemes
- •1.4.3. Differential meaning of morphemes
- •1.4.4. Distributional meaning of morphemes
- •1.5.2.2. Morphological motivation of words
- •1.5.2.3. Semantic motivation of words
- •Lecture 2. Change of Meaning
- •2.1. Causes of semantic change
- •2.1.1. Extralinguistic causes of semantic change
- •2.1.2. Linguistic causes of semantic change
- •2.2. Nature, results and types of semantic change
- •2.2.1. Similarity of meanings or metaphor
- •2.2.2. Contiguity of meanings or metonymy
- •2.2.3. Types of semantic change without the transfer of name
- •2.2.3.1. Specialization and generalization of meanings
- •2.2.3.2. Amelioration and pejoration of meaning
- •2.2.3.3. Hyperbole, litotes, irony, euphemism, disphemism, taboo
- •Lecture 3. Polysemy
- •3.1. The notion of polysemy
- •3.2. Approaches to polysemy
- •3.2.1. Diachronic approach to polysemy
- •3.2.2. Synchronic approach to polysemy
- •Lecture 4. Homonymy
- •4.1. Definition of homonymy
- •4.2. Homonymy of words and homonymy of word-forms
- •4.3. Classification of homonyms
- •4.3.1. Full and partial homonymy
- •4.3.2. Classification of homonyms by the type of meaning
- •4.3.3. Classification of homonyms by the sound-form, graphic form and meaning
- •4.4. Sources of homonymy
- •4.4.1. Diverging meaning development
- •4.4.2. Converging sound development
- •4.5. Differentiation of polysemy and homonymy
- •Lecture 5. Word-meaning in syntagmatics and paradigmatics
- •5.1. Definition of syntagmatics and paradigmatics
- •5.2. Conceptual or semantic fields
- •5.3. Hyponimic (or hierarchical) structures and lexico-semantic groups
- •5.4. Synonymy and antonymy
- •Lecture 6. Word-structure
- •6.1. Segmentation of words into morphemes
- •6.2. Classification of morphemes
- •6.3. Procedure of morphemic analysis
- •6.4. Morphemic types of words
- •6.5. Derivative structure of words
- •7.3. Composition or compounding
- •7.4. Conversion
- •7.5. Shortening and abbreviation
- •7.5.1. Shortening or contraction
- •7.5.2. Abbreviation
- •7.6. Back-formation or reversion
- •8. Word-groups and phraseological units
- •8.1. Lexical and grammatical valency
- •8.2. Definition of phraseological units
- •8.3. Classification of phraseological units
- •Literature
- •Contents
- •Introduction 1
7.3. Composition or compounding
Compounding or word-composition is linking together at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms, e.g. oak-tree, blackbird, fancy-dress-maker.
Compound words may be classified according to different principles: (1) according to the relationship and degree of semantic independence of components; (2) according to the parts of speech compound words represent; (3) according to the means of composition used to link the Immediate Constituents together; (4) according to the type of Immediate Constituents that are brought together to form o compound; (5) according to the correlative relations with the system of free word-groups.
7.4. Conversion
Conversion is the process of coining a new word in a different part of speech with a different paradigm and distribution, but without adding any derivative element and without changing the form of the derivative word, so that the original base-word and the derivative word are homonymous. E.g. ape (n.) to ape (v.). The second word in the conversion pair is semantically derived from the first one.
According to the type of semantic relations in this pair we may distinguish the following basic conversion patterns:
1) NV: verbs converted from nouns or denominal verbs: bag to bag; this process is called verbalization;
2) V ®N: nouns converted from verbs or deverbal substantives: to move ® move; this process is called substantivation;
3) N ®A: adjectives converted from nouns or denominal adjectives: suspect (n.) ® suspect (a.); this process is called adjectivization;
4) A ®N: adjectives converted into nouns or deadjectival nouns: intellectual (a.) ® intellectual (n.); this process is called substantivation;
5) A ®Adv: adjectives converted into adverbs or deadjectival adverbs: dear (a.) ® dear (adv.); this process is called adverbialization.
7.5. Shortening and abbreviation
Shortening or abbreviation is the process of subtraction of a part of the original word.
7.5.1. Shortening or contraction
Shortening may be also called clipping, curtailment or contracting of words.
The generally accepted classification of shortened words is based on the position of the clipped part. According to the part of the word that is cut off – final, initial or middle we distinguish:
final clipping (or apocope) in which the beginning of the prototype is retained; e.g. lab < laboratory;
initial clipping (or apheresis [], or aphesis[]) in which the final part of the prototype is retained; e.g. chute < parachute;
medial clipping (or syncope) [] in which the middle part of the prototype is left out; e.g. specs < spectacles;
final clipping may be combined with initial clipping and result in curtailed words with the middle part of the prototype retained; e.g. flu < influenza.
There are cases when curtailment is combined with affixation; e.g. nightie < nightdress + -ie.
There are also cases when curtailment is combined with composition that result in compound shortening; e.g. satcom < satellite communication.
Among such formations there is a special group of derivatives named blends, blendings, fusions or portmanteau [] words; they are formed by clipping combined with blending; e.g. smog < smoke + fog.
There are cases when the words slide or inserted into one another without any clipping; this process is called telescoping; e.g. alcoholiday < alcohol + holiday “a drinking spree”.
There is a special type of curtailed forms base on clipped phrases; they result from a combined effect of curtailment, ellipsis and substantivation. Ellipsis is defined as the omission of a word or words in a word-combination or phrase; e.g. finals < final examinations.