Category of case
Ukrainian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, vocative
English: common case // genitive case
POSSSESSIVE OR GENITIVE?
In grammar, the genitive case is the case that marks a noun as modifying another noun. It often marks a noun as being the possessor of another noun but it can also indicate various relationships other than possession.
The English construction in -’s has various uses other than a possessive marker. Most of these uses overlap with a complement marked by "of" (the music of Beethoven or Beethoven’s music), but the two constructions are not equivalent. The use of -’s in a non-possessive sense is more prevalent, and less restricted, in formal than informal language.
Genitive of origin; subjective genitive
Beethoven’s music
My sister’s dancing
my mother’s teaching
In these constructions, the marker indicates the origin or source of the head noun of the phrase, rather than possession. Most of these phrases, however, can still be paraphrased with of: the music of Beethoven, the teaching of my mother.
Objective genitive; classifying genitive
the Hundred Years’ War
a day's pay
two weeks’ notice
speech of an appropriate tone
A Midsummer Night’s Dream
a man’s world
the Teachers’ Lounge
In these constructions, the marker serves to specify, delimit, or describe the head noun. The paraphrase with of is often un-idiomatic or ambiguous with these genitives:
**the war of a Hundred Years
**the pay of a day
**notice of two weeks
Genitive of purpose
women’s shoes
children’s literature
Here, the marked noun identifies the purpose or intended recipient of the head noun. Of cannot paraphrase them; they can be idiomatically paraphrased with for: shoes for women.
Double genitive
that hard heart of thine (“Venus and Adonis”, line 500)
a picture of the king’s (that is, a picture owned by the king, as distinguished from a picture of the king, one in which the king is portrayed)
The Oxford English Dictionary says that this usage was "Originally partitive”
Cf. His friend // a friend of his
PRONOUN
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (Lat: pronomen) is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as YOU and THEY in English. The replaced phrase is called the antecedent of the pronoun.
Classes of pronouns
There exists almost complete isomorphism in the classes of pronouns
CASES – from Old English to Modern English
The English language once had an extensive declension system similar to Latin, modern German or Icelandic. Old English distinguished between the nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive cases; and for strongly declined adjectives and some pronouns also a separate instrumental (which otherwise and later completely coincided with the dative). Declension was greatly simplified during the Middle English period, when accusative and dative pronouns merged into a single objective pronoun. Nouns in Modern English no longer decline for case, except in a sense for possessive, and for remnants of the former system in a few pronouns.
"Who” and "whom", "he" and "him", "she" and "her", etc. are remnants of both the old nominative versus accusative and also of nominative versus dative. In other words, "her" (for example) serves as both the dative and accusative version of the nominative pronoun "she". In Old English as well as modern German and Icelandic as further examples, these cases had distinct pronouns.
This collapse of the separate case pronouns into the same word is one of the reasons grammarians consider the dative and accusative cases to be extinct in English . Instead, the term objective is often used; that is, "whom" is a generic objective pronoun which can describe either a direct or an indirect object. The nominative case, "who", is called simply the subjective. The information formerly conveyed by having distinct case forms is now mostly provided by prepositions and word order.
THE ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a word which acts to modify a noun in a sentence.
Two major functions in the sentence
a predicative adjective used after a link verb, e.g. A zebra is striped
(Cр. Ukrainian – Дитя було маленьке, вона стала нервовою
an attributive adjective, in which it modifies a noun ‘The striped zebra pranced.’
While most adjectives in English are able to be used just as easily either in an attributive or a predicative sense, there are some which are restricted to one role or the other. For example, the adjective sole can be used grammatically only as an attributive adjective, as can be seen in the sentence: This is the sole survivor. On the other hand, trying to use the adjective sole in the predicative role would result in the ungrammatical sentence: *This survivor is sole. Other English adjectives, such as alone, may be used only as a predicative adjective, while attempts to use them attributively result in ungrammatical sentences.
Adjectives normally used only after a link verb, i.e. predicatively.
afraid asleep due ready unable
alive aware glad sorry well
alone content ill sure
For example, we can say ‘She was glad’, but you do not talk about ‘a glad woman’.
Adjectives may be modified by adverbs or adverbial clauses, but not by other adjectives.
Isomorphic classes of adjectives:
qualitative
Relative
Possessive and relative : Shakesperean; Byronian
Suppletive: good –better – the best
Isomorphic is the process of substantivization of adjectives ^ a native, a relative, Italian, etc.
Partially substativized adjectives in both languages have no plural or singular, as well as gender or case distinctions: : the poor, the rich;
In Ukrainian – they are usu of neuter gender: головне. Важливе.
As to the structure оf adjectives, they fall in English and Ukrainian into three far from equal by their number groups:
base (simple adjectives, which are root words) . Few in Ukrainian – варт рад, жив
Derivative adjectives: English: boyish, beautiful, rural, urban
Ukrainian: товариський – грушевий – лоїльнмй-виборчий - величезний
Compound adjectives
Allomorphic classes : possessive (only in Ukrainian) (мамин, бітьків, братові книги)
Absolutely allomorphic is the formation of Ukrainian adjectives with teh help of diminutive and augmentative suffixes
GRADING
Analytical forms of grading are more often employed in English than in Ukrainian. In Ukrainian the synthetic way of grading is more often used.(suffixes іш, ш and prefixes най-
RELATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES
All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative. These two types are found both in English and Ukrainian.
Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance.
E.g.: wood — a wooden hut; mathematics — mathematical precision; history — a historical event; table — tabular presentation; colour — coloured postcards; surgery — surgical treatment; the Middle Ages — mediaeval rites.
The nature of this "relationship" in adjectives is best revealed by definitional correlations. Cf.: a wooden hut — a hut made of wood; a historical event — an event referring to a certain period of history; surgical treatment — treatment consisting in the implementation of surgery; etc.
Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation.
In this connection, the ability of an adjective to form degrees of comparison is usually taken as a formal sign of its qualitative character, in opposition to a relative adjective which is understood as incapable of forming degrees of comparison by definition. Cf.: a pretty girl --a prettier girl; a quick look — a quicker look; a hearty welcome — the heartiest of welcomes; a bombastic speech — the most bombastic speech.