1. French derivational affixes in English

Alongside words, English also adopted some French derivational affixes (both suffixes and prefixes). Derivational affixes could not be borrowed as such; they entered the language in scores of loan-words, were unconsciously or consciously separated by the speakers and used in derivation. They could become productive in English only after the loan-words with those affixes were completely assimilated by the language; that is why the use of borrowed French affixes dates largely from the Early NE period.

A few examples of French derivational affixes used in English to derive new words are already found in ME: husbandry, goddess.

French suffixes:

• -ance, -ence: ignorance, arrogance, entrance, repentance, innocence, dependence, etc. When the meaning of the suffix became clear to English speakers, derivation of nouns from native English stems with this suffix became possible: hindrance from the stem of the native English verb hinder.

• -ment: government, treatment, agreement, was used to derive new nouns from native stems: fulfillment, amazement, bewilderment.

• -ess (ultimately of Greek origin), used to derive names of female beings, penetrated into English as part of the nouns princess, countess, baroness. It was added to native stems to derive the new nouns shepherdess, goddess, murderess.

• -et (diminutive): coronet ‘small crown’, islet, circlet. Later the suffix –let was formed which was joined on to native stems: streamlet, ringlet, leaflet, booklet.

• -age: courage, carriage, marriage, was joined on to Scandinavian stems in English to derive the nouns luggage and leakage.

• -é: penetrated into English as a part of some nouns denoting a person taking a passive part in some action or agreement, such as lessee, employee. Later the suffix was joined on to a Scandinavian stem to derive the noun trustee.

• -ard (of German origin): penetrated into English as a part of the nouns coward, bastard. Joined on to native English stem it yielded the nouns wizard, drunkard, dullard.

• -al (from French -aille): used to derive abstract nouns from verb stems, penetrated into English as part of the nouns funeral, refusal, arrival, proposal. Eventually it was joined on to an English stem to derive the noun burial.

• -able, -ible, deriving adjectives which mean ‘capable of undergoing the action denoted by the verb stem’, came into English as part of the adjectives admirable, tolerable, legible, flexible. Eventually it was joined on to native stems to derive the adjectives readable, unbearable, understandable, etc.

French prefixes

• dis-, des-, with a negative meaning, came into English as part of the French verbs disappoint, disdain, disagree and was eventually used to derive verbs from native stems: disown, disburden, and from a Scandinavian stem: distrust.

• en- (from Latin in-): encage, encircle, encompass, was joined on to native stems to derive the verbs endear, embed (enb- > emb-).