Text e Pollution and Oil Shortage

In 1966 separate legislation was enacted requiring exhaust-emission control devices on all cars built after January 1, 1968. The federal exhaust-emission control law followed the enactment of similar standards in California, where unburned hydrocarbons polluting the atmosphere over the city of Los Angeles had been a problem for many years.

The automotive industry introduced two exhaust-emission systems designed to control the emissions of the internal-combustion engines. One of the systems involves injecting air into the exhaust gas as it flows from the cylinder to the exhaust manifold. The introduction of fresh air at combustion temperatures continues the oxidation process in the exhaust system, so that more of the hydrocarbons and the carbon monoxide are burned before being emitted into the atmosphere. The other system involves engine modifications to improve carburetion, distributor calibration, and combustion, measures that effectively control exhaust emissions.

The 1970 Clean Air Act required U.S. automobile manufacturers to design more efficient and “clean” engines in order to reduce harmful emissions by 90 percent before 1976. But the deadline for meeting these standards was postponed to the 1980 model year because of the fuel crisis of the mid-1970s and technological difficulties. The government also stipulated that the average mileage for all cars be 11.7 km/liter (27.5 mi/gallons) by 1985.

Rising gasoline prices led to an increased demand for small cars, and U.S. manufacturers turned out their own models to compete with foreign ones. But the future lay in “downsizing” even standard models to reduce weight and increase economy. High-strength plastics and aluminum replaced steel in many components, and smaller, more efficient engines were designed. Chief among these were dual displacement engines, stratified charge engines, and engines aided by turbochargers. Small computers began to be used to control carburetion. Plans for volume production of electric cars were under study for the mid-1980s, but cash shortages hampered development work.

In 1994 the EPA allowed 12 states to adopt automobile emissions standards that were above the national standard and that required the automobile industry to introduce a new class of cars by 1999. The automobile industry objected to the stricter, more expensive standards but the EPA allowed the states to impose them.

Exercise 1

Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. How do you understand 1966 separate legislation requiring exhaust-emission control devices to be installed on all cars?

2. Did automotive industry introduce exhaust-emission systems to control the emissions of the internal-combustion engines?

3. What is the role of fresh air at combustion temperatures and how it improves operation of exhaust system?

4. Do engine modifications improve effectively exhaust emissions?

5. What did the 1970 Clean Air Act require from U.S. automobile manufacturers?

6. Did increasing in gasoline prices lead to higher demand for small cars?

7. Why did the U.S. manufacturers turn out their own models to compete with foreign ones?

8. What materials replaced steel in many components of American cars to make them more efficient?

9. What was the main reason of termination of broad scale electric cars development in mid-1980s?

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими по смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. A separate legislation requiring exhaust-emission control devices on all cars built after January 1, 1968 was enacted in … .

2. The federal exhaust-emission control law followed the enactment of similar standards in … .

3. … … problems were a big problem for many years for the atmosphere over the city of Los Angeles.

4. The automotive industry introduced two … … systems designed to control the emissions of the internal-combustion engines.

5. One of the systems involves … air into the exhaust gas as it flows from the cylinder to the exhaust manifold.

6. The introduction of … … at combustion temperatures continues the oxidation process in the exhaust system.

7. The 1970 Clean Air Act required U.S. automobile manufacturers to design more efficient and “clean” … in order to reduce harmful emissions.

8. Rising gasoline prices led to an increased demand for … cars.

9. High-strength plastics and aluminum replaced … in many components of cars.

10. Plans for volume production of … cars were under study for the mid-1980s.

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. In 1956 separate legislation was enacted requiring exhaust-emission control devices on all cars built after January 1, 1968.

2. The federal exhaust-emission control law followed the enactment of similar standards in Canada.

3. The State Department introduced two exhaust-emission systems designed to control the emissions of the internal-combustion engines.

4. The introduction of fresh air at combustion temperatures terminates the oxidation process in the exhaust system.

5. The 1970 Clean Air Act required U.S. automobile manufacturers to design bigger cars to reduce harmful emissions.

6. The Russian government stipulated that the average mileage for all cars be 11.7 km/liter by 1985.

7. Rising gasoline prices lead to an increased demand for bigger cars.

8. High-strength plastics and aluminum replaced rubber in many components of modern cars, and bigger less efficient engines were designed.

9. Volume production of electric cars started actively in the USA in mid-1980s.

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Exhaust-emission control device - polluting the atmosphere - internal-combustion engine - injecting air - exhaust gas - combustion temperatures - oxidation process - exhaust system - carbon monoxide - engine modification - exhaust emission - harmful emission - technological difficulty - to reduce weight - increase economy - high-strength plastic.

Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца:

Exercise 6

Выделите пять основных идей текста.

Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

Introduction of exhaust-emission systems – to control the emissions of the internal-combustion engines – to inject air into the exhaust gas - engine modification - Clean Air Act - to reduce harmful emissions - fuel crisis - an increased demand for small cars - to reduce weight – to increase economy - high-strength plastics.

Exercise 9

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. The mass use of motor vehicles was bound to have some unforeseen and undesirable consequences of which three can be singled out: traffic congestion, air pollution, and highway accidents.

2. The constantly growing number of automobiles throughout the world adds to the difficulty of finding remedies for congestion.

3. The heart of the problem is that few city street systems have been designed for automobile traffic.

4. The widespread use of automobiles for business travel has also led in many cities to a decline in public transit systems.

5. Automobile exhaust commonly contributes half the atmospheric pollutants in large cities.

6. At the end of the 20th century, many scientists believed that emissions from motor vehicles, industrial processes, and power plants were leading to a buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

7. Many automobile manufacturers also have undertaken development of alternative, less-polluting power sources.

8. Highway accidents create a distressing toll of fatalities and injuries wherever there is widespread use of automobiles.

9. Each year there are hundreds of thousands of motor vehicle fatalities worldwide.

10. The social and economic cost of car accidents is incalculable.

11. Efforts to improve highway safety have been successful in most countries.

12. Today many vehicles are equipped with multiple air bags to protect occupants.

13. Most countries of the world have set speed limits ranging from about 65 km per hour in some island nations to 120–130 km per hour in many European countries.

14. In some parts of the world, such as areas of Germany, India, and the Philippines, speed limits traditionally are not prescribed.

Exercise 8

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. In 1996 separate legislation was enacted requiring all traders to present balance sheets to taxation departments.

2. Exhaust-emission control devices should be installed on all cars built after January 1, 1968.

3. The automotive industry recently introduced a new generation electric car.

4. Turbo-jet engine involves injecting air into the burning chamber of the engine.

5. More of the hydrocarbons and the carbon monoxide are burned before being emitted into the atmosphere in well designed engines.

6. The Clean Air Act requires all European manufacturers to design more efficient and “clean” engines.

7. Rising gasoline prices led to an increased inflation in Russia in late 1990s.

8. Plans for volume production of refrigerators are under study in our factory nowadays.

9. The new bridge was under construction since late 1990s but at the end of 1999 cash shortages hampered construction work.

Exercise 9

Составьте по 5 вопросов к каждому из предложений:

1. The mass use of motor vehicles was bound to have some unforeseen and undesirable consequences of which three can be singled out: traffic congestion, air pollution, and highway accidents.

2. The constantly growing number of automobiles throughout the world adds to the difficulty of finding remedies for congestion.

3. The heart of the problem is that few city street systems have been designed for automobile traffic.

4. The widespread use of automobiles for business travel has also led in many cities to a decline in public transit systems.

5. Automobile exhaust commonly contributes half the atmospheric pollutants in large cities.

6. At the end of the 20th century, many scientists believed that emissions from motor vehicles, industrial processes, and power plants were leading to a buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

7. Many automobile manufacturers also have undertaken development of alternative, less-polluting power sources.

8. Highway accidents create a distressing toll of fatalities and injuries wherever there is widespread use of automobiles.

9. Each year there are hundreds of thousands of motor vehicle fatalities worldwide and more than 40,000 in the United States alone.

10. The social and economic cost of car accidents is incalculable.

11. Efforts to improve highway safety have been successful in most countries.

12. Today many vehicles are equipped with multiple air bags to protect occupants.

Exercise 10

Переведите на английский язык:

1. Федеральный закон о контроле над окружающей средой был принят в 1984 году.

2. Установка приборов по контролю над выхлопными газами автомобилей была введена законодательно в США в 1966 году.

3. Два вида контроля были установлены на недавно смонтированном оборудовании.

4. Закон обязал всех автолюбителей проверять двигатель своего автомобиля на токсичность выхлопных газов.

5. Среднее потребление топлива на автомобилях данного класса составляет 10 литров на 100 километров.

6. При увеличении цены на бензин, уменьшается спрос на большие автомобили.

7. Для управления процессом впрыска топлива, в современных автомобилях используются компьютеры.

8. Чем меньше вес автомобиля, тем выше его эффективность.

9. Расход топлива на автомобиле во многом зависит от эффективности двигателя

Exercise 11

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:

Automobile Safety

In 1965 Ralph Nader, an American lawyer and consumer-protection advocate, published the book Unsafe at Any Speed, in which he argued that poor automobile design was a major contributor to 50,000 highway deaths annually in the United States. The U.S. Congress responded in 1966 with legislation regulating automobile design for the first time and established the National Safety Bureau, later renamed the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), which was empowered to set standards for cars and trucks manufactured after January 15, 1968. Among early standards were those requiring collapsible steering columns; padded instrument panels; seat belts for all passengers; recessed or breakaway switches and handles; door side-beam reinforcement bars to absorb impacts from the side; front and rear bumpers designed to absorb 8-km/h impacts without damage; side-mounted reflectors or lights enabling drivers to see other cars better at night; dual brake cylinders; and improved fuel tanks to reduce leakage in accidents.

In the 1970s the NHTSA required that cars be constructed so that passengers could survive 48-km/h impacts against immovable barriers. A “passive restraint” standard was proposed that would require manufacturers to devise automatic passenger restraint systems. Air bags that, upon impact, automatically inflate in a fraction of a second were developed as one solution, but automakers resisted installing them because of high costs and concern over reliability. A second solution was “passive” seat belts that do not require passengers to fasten the belts themselves. In 1984, after years of debate over regulatory proposals, the Department of Transportation mandated the phasing in of automatic crash protection for American-built cars to begin in 1986; by 1989, unless states representing two-thirds of the populace made the wearing of seat belts mandatory, all cars would have to be equipped with the automatic devices. Improved automotive safety features, improved highways, and a national speed limit of 88 km/h helped reduce the nation's highway fatality rate from 5.21 per 100 million mi driven in 1969 to 3.46 a decade later.