1. The semantic approach:

a) associated epithets: dark forest, dreary midnight, fantastic terrors

b) unassociated epithets: heart-breaking smile, bootless cries, sullen earth, voiceless sands

2. The structural approach:

a) simple epithets: ordinary adjectives “darkforest”

b) compound epithets: sylph-like figures, curly-headed, mischief-making

c) phrase, or sentence epithets: do-it-yourself attitude, go-it-alone, mystery-making, a well-that’s-the-story-what-are-we-going-to-do-about-it

d) reversed epithets: the shadow of a smile, a little Flying Dutchman of a cab, a

dog of a fellow

3. Distributional approach:

a) string of epithets: “Such was the background of the wonderful, cruel, enchanting, bewildering, fatal, great city”

b) transferred epithets: sleepless pillow, restless pace, unbreakfasted morning, merry hours, a disapproving finger, indifferent shoulders

4. Language epithets (traditional)

5. Speech epithets = slavish knees, sleepless bay

6. Fixed epithets(used in ballads and folklore) = dark forest, green wood, good ship, brave cavaliers.

7. Epithets can also be classified according to part of speech, as they can be expressed by any notional speech part - noun, verb, adjective, adverb.

An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines two normally contradictory terms. In other words, it is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense. E.g.: “sweet sorrow”, “nice rascal”, “pleasantly ugly face”, “horribly beautiful”, “a deafening silence”, etc.

4. Types of stylistic devices. Lexical EMs and SDs. Simile, periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole, understatement.

Simile is a figure of speech in which the subject is compared to another subject. The formal elements of a simile are like, as, as if, as though, such as, seem, etc. E.g. : ‘A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle’. Simile is a comparison of two unlike things.

Periphrasis is a very peculiar stylistic device which basically means paraphrasing, using an indirect form of expression instead of a simpler one, in other words, using a complicated syntactical structure instead of a word.

Logical periphrases are phrases synonymic with the words which were substituted by periphrases: “Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires.” (M.St.) “The conventional disguise” stands here for “the suit” and “the shame of American millionaires” - for “the paunch (the belly)”. This periphrasis may be also considered euphemistic, as it offers a more polite qualification instead of a coarser one.

Figurative periphrasisis made, in fact, of phrase-metonymies and phrase- metaphors, as we may see from the following example: “The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa” (I.Sh.) where the extended metonymy stands for “the wounded”.

Hyperbole is largely synonymous with exaggeration and overstatement. It is a figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated. It may be used due to strong feelings or is used to create a strong impression and is not meant to be taken literally. It is very deliberate and gives greater emphasis to the statement. It is often used in poetry and is a literary device. Like all other SDs, it is fresh = original = genuine when first used, and trite = dead = stale when often repeated.

The exaggerated phenomenon can be different (size, quantity, emotion, etc.). E.g.: “I could eat a horse”, “I've heard that a billion times”.

The antonym to hyperbole is understatement. E.g.: “He has a brain the size of a pinhead”, “The little woman, she was of pocket size...”

4. Syntactical EMs and SDs. General considerations. Neutral and stylistically coloured syntactical structures. The Syntactical whole (SPU) and the paragraph. The difference between them. Rhetorical question.

The majority of English words are neutral. Neutral words do not have stylistic connotations. Their meanings are purely denotative. They are such words as table, man, day, weather, to go, good, first, something, enough. Besides neutral vocabulary, there are two great stylistically marked layers of words in English word-stock: literary vocabulary and colloquial vocabulary. Literary vocabulary includes bookish words, terms, poetic and archaic words, barbarisms and neologisms. Colloquial vocabulary embraces conversational lexis, jargonisms, professionalisms, dialectal, slangy and vulgar words. Neutral words form the lexical backbone of all functional styles. They are understood and accepted by all English-speaking people. Being the main source of synonymy and polysemy, neutral words easily produce new meanings and stylistic variants. Compare: mouse = 1) a small furry animal with a long tail; 2) mouse = a small device that you move in order to do things on a computer screen; 3) mouse = someone who is quiet and prefers not to be noticed. Supra-phrasal unit (SPU) is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence. is also characterized by the fact that it can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence. This cannot be said of the sentence, which, while representing a complete syntactical unit, may, however, lack the quality of independence.  consists of one sentence or a string of sentences. It is necessary to find the elements into which any text may fall. In other words, there must be certain constituent units of which any text is composed. Phonemes, the smallest language units, function within morphemes and are dependent on them, morphemes function within words, words — within sentences, and sentences function in larger structural frames which we shall call "supra-phrasal units". Consequently, neither words nor separate sentences can be regarded as the basic constituents of a text. They are the basic units of lower levels of language-as-a-system. Thus the sentence: "Guy glanced at his wife's untouched plate", if taken out of the context, will be perceived as a part of a larger span of utterance where the situation will be made clear and the purport of verbal expression more complete. Guy glanced at his wife's untouched plate. "If you've finished, we might stroll down. I think you ought to be starting." She did not answer. She rose from the table. She went into her room to see that nothing had been forgotten and then side by side with him walked down the steps. So a supra-phrasal unit may be defined as a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity. there may be considerable variety in the arrangement of SPUs and of paragraphs, ranging from what might be called clearly-marked borderlines between the supra-phrasal unit to almost imperceptible semantic shifts. It follows then that the paragraphs in the belles-lettres prose style do not necessarily possess the qualities of unity and coherence as is the case with paragraphs in other styles of speech and particularly in the scientific prose style. SPUs are to be found in particular in poetical style. Here the SPUs, as well as the paragraphs, are embodied in stanzas.  A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. But this graphical term Paragraph structure in the belles-lettres and publicistic styles is strongly affected by the purport of the_author. The length of a paragraph normally varies from eight to twelve sentences. The longer the paragraph is, the more difficult it is to fallow the purport of the writer. In newspaper style, however, most рaragraphs consist of one or perhaps two or three sentences. However, paragraph building in belles-lettres prose generally lacks unity, inasmuch as it is governed by other than logical principles.

The term supra-phrasal unit (SPU) is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence. It generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with). Such a span of utterance is also characterized by the fact that it can be extract- ed from the context without losing its relative semantic independence. This cannot be said of the sentence, which, while representing a complete syntactical unit, may, however, lack the quality of independence. A supra-phrasal unit may be defined as a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity.

A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sen- tences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end.

4. Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement. Stylistic inversion, detachment, parallelism, chiasmus.

Inversion/Change of Word Orderaims at making one of the members of the sentence more conspicuous, more important, more emphatic.

‘Talent Mr.Micawber has; capital Mr.Micawber has not.’

Came frightful days of snow and rain.

Detached Constructionis a secondary part of a sentence, placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance.

Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes.

This stylistic device is akin to inversion, detached construction produces a much stronger effect. ‘I want to go’, he said, miserable.’

A variant of detached construction is parenthesis. Parenthesis is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, sentence, etc. which interrupts a syntactic construction, giving an utterance an additional meaning or emotional colouring. It is indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes.

Carl, a great singer, was not a good dancer.

Parallel Construction may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession:

‘There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink tea out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in.’

Parallel Construction is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis and climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices.

In the following example parallelism backs up repetition, alliteration, and antithesis, making the whole sentence almost epigrammatic:

‘And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe,

And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot.’

Parallel Construction emphasizes the similarity, diversity, contrasts the ideas equates the significance of the parts.

Our senses perceive no extremes. Too much sound deafens us; too much light dazzles us; too great distance or proximity hinders our view.

Parallelism always generates rhythm; hence it is natural to be used in poetry.

Chiasmus/ Reversed Parallel Construction is based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phases.

1. In peace sons bury their fathers,

But in war fathers bury their sons.

2. Down dropped the breeze,

The sails dropped down.

Chiasmus lays stress on the second part of the utterance and always brings in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis.

4. Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement. Repetition, enumeration, suspense, climax, antithesis, litotes.

Repetition is used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotions. It shows the state of mind of the speaker. ‘Stop!’-she cried. ‘Don’t tell me! I don’t want to hear; I don’t want to hear what you’ve come for. I don’t want to hear.’ The repetition ‘I don’t want to hear’ shows the excited state of mind of the speaker. Repetition aims at fixing the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance.

          Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, actions or properties are named one by one so that they produce a chain. The links of the chain are forced to display some semantic homogeneity.            The grouping of sometimes absolutely heterogeous notions meets the peculiar purport of the writer. Enumeration is frequently used to depict scenery through a tourist’s eyes as it gives one an insight into the mind of the observer.

          Suspense consists in arranging the matter of communication in such a way that the less important parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. Thus the reader’s attention is held and his interest kept up, as he is in the state of uncertainty and expectation. Suspense sometimes goes together with Climax.

Climax/Gradation is the arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance or emotional tension in the utterance. The gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and quantitative. Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences.            It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem of a city. Quantitative climax is an evident increase in the volume of the concepts:           They looked at hundreds of houses, they climbed thousands of stairs, they inspected innumerable kitchens.            The function of this stylistic device is to show the relative importance of the things as seen by the author.

Antithesisis a stylistic opposition, setting thing one against the other. In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view, it may be necessary to find points of sharp contrast.

1. A saint abroad, and a devil at home.

2. Youth is lovely, age is lonely,

Youth is fiery, age is frosty.

3. Man proposes, God disposes.

Antithesis has the basic function of rhyme-forming because of the parallel arrangement on which it is founded.

Crabbed age and youth

Cannot live together:

Youth is full of pleasance,

Age is full of care…

Litotes is a peculiar use of negative construction: the negation plus noun or adjective establish a positive feature in a person or thing. It is a deliberate understatement used to produce a stylistic effect. Litotes is not a pure negation, but a negation that includes affirmation.

It is not bad.-(Is a good thing)

He is no coward.-(He is a brave man)

Such negative constructions have a stronger effect on the reader than affirmative ones.

She was not without taste.

The constructions with two negations: not unlike, not unpromising, not displeased make positive phrases.

12. Particular ways of combining parts of the sentence. Asyndeton, polysyndeton, gap-sentence link (GSL).

Asyndeton is deliberate omission of conjunctions; connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language; is a connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign; is a deliberate omission of conjunctions and connectives; the function of Asyndeton is to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose. E.g.: Veni, vidi, vici; “I came, I saw, I conquered“.

Polysyndeton is repeated use of conjunctions; is a stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part; the function of polysyndeton is to strengthen the idea of equal logical (emotive) importance of connected sentences. E.g.: “The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.”

Gap-sentence link (GSL) presents two utterances where the second is brought into the focus of the reader's attention; represents author’s subjective interpretation of the links between parts of an utterance. E.g.: "She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy." - 'Those who ought to suffer were enjoying themselves in Italy (where well-to-do English people go for holidays).' GSL as a stylistic device is based on the peculiarities of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech; aims at stirring up in the reader's mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence uttered can really exist. GSL is a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader's perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, but not worded; is deeply rooted not only in writing but also in the norms of the spoken language.

12. Particular use of colloquial constructions. Ellipsis, break-in-the-narrative, question-in-the-narrative.

Ellipsis refers to any omitted part of speech that is understood, i.e. the omission is intentional. In writing and printing this intentional omission is indicated by the row of three dots (…) or asterisks (***). Ellipsis always imitates the common features of colloquial language. This punctuation mark is called a suspension point or dot-dot-dot. E.g.: "There's somebody wants to speak to you."

Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis) is an unfinished thought or broken sentence.

“Aposiopesis can stimulate the impression of a speaker so overwhelmed by emotions that he or she is unable to continue speaking. Aposiopesis can also convey a certain pretended shyness toward obvious expressions or even an everyday casualness.” E.g.: Good intentions but-; You just come home or I’ll…

Question-in-the-Narrative changes the real nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. Questions chain the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering. E.g.: “Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did. How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don’t know how many years.” (Dickens); Question in the narrative may also remain unanswered: “How long must it go on? How long must we suffer? Where is the end? What is the end?” (Norris)

12. Types and forms of narrative. Represented speech (uttered, unuttered).

The ways of reproducing actual speech:

• direct speeсh - repetition of the exact utterance as it was spoken

• indirect speech - conversion of the exact utterance into the relater's mode of expression

• represented speech - representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, mental reproduction of a once uttered remark. It looks like indirect speech, but without traditional punctuation.

• represented unuttered or represented inner speech - the unuttered or inner speech of the character, his thoughts and feelings.

Represented (= reported) speech is a type of narration - is a form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression. Represented speech exists in two varieties: 1) uttered represented speech. E.g.: "Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He could.” (Dreiser); 2) unuttered or inner represented speech. E.g.: "An idea had occurred to Soames. His cousin Jolyon was Irene's trustee, the first step would be to go down and see him at Robin Hill. Robin Hill! The odd—the very odd feeling those words brought back. Robin Hill—the house Bosinney had built for him and Irene— the house they had never lived in—the fatal house! And Jolyon lived there now!" (Galsworthy)

The author’s narrative (= the author’s speech) supplies the reader with direct information about the author’s preferences and objections, beliefs and contradictions, i.e. serves the major source of shaping up the author’s image. The unfolding of the plot is mainly concentrated here, personages are given characteristics, the time and the place of action are also described here, as the author sees them.

But in the modern prose the writer often hides behind the figure of the narrator, presents all the events of the story from the latter’s viewpoint and only sporadically emerges in the narrative with his own considerations, which may reinforce or contradict those expressed by the narrator. This form of the author’s speech is called entrusted narrative. Entrusted narrative can be carried out in the 1-st person singular, when the narrator proceeds with his story openly and explicitly, from his own name, as, e.g., in The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger. Entrusted narrative may also be anonymous. The narrator does not openly claim responsibility for the views and evaluations but the manner of presentation, the angle of description very strongly suggest that the story is told not by the author himself but by some of his personages.

The narrative, both the author’s and the entrusted, is not the only type of narration observed in creative prose. A very important place here is occupied by dialogue, where personages express their minds in the form of uttered speech. Dialogue is one of the most significant forms of the personage’s self-characterization.

Interior speech of the personage allows the author (and the readers) to look into the inner world of the character, to observe his ideas and views. Interior speech is best known in the form of interior monologue, a rather long piece of the text (half a page and over) dealing with one major thought of the character. Stream-of- consciousness technique is especially popular with representatives of modernism in contemporary literature.

The last but not least type of narration - represented (= reported) speech - is a mix of the viewpoints and language of both the author and the character. It was first observed and analysed almost a hundred years ago. Represented speech may be of two types: represented uttered speech, and represented inner speech. The latter is close to the personage’s interior speech in essence, but differs from it in form: it is rendered in the third person singular and may have the author’s qualitative words, i.e. it reflects the presence of the author’s viewpoint alongside that of the character, while interior speech belongs to the personage completely, formally too, which is materialized through the first-person pronouns and the language idiosyncrasies of the character.

According to its semantics the text may have three compositional narrative forms. They are: narrative proper, where the unfolding of the plot is concentrated.

This is the most dynamic compositional form of the text. Two other forms - description and argumentation - are static. All the compositional forms can be found in each of the types of narration (and in all functional styles) but with strongly varying frequencies and combinations.

12. The notion of a functional style. Classification of functional styles. Belles-lettres style, its substyles.

A FS is a social and historical category, and it is a variety of a literary language that is born out of a social need and fulfills a certain pragmatic function (i.e. communicative task). I.R.Galperin gives the following definition of a FS: “A FS is a patterned variety of literary text characterized by the greater or lesser typification of its constituents, supra-phrasal units (SPU), in which the choice and arrangement of interdependent and interwoven language media are calculated to secure the purport of the communication”.

V.L.Nayer sees seven basic FS in modern English. They are: official, scientific, professionally-technical, newspaper, publicistic, belles-lettres, religious style. Scientific, newspaper and belles-lettres styles play the most important role among them.

Оф - официально-документальный, H - научный, П-т - профессионально-техни­ческий, Г - газетный, П - публицисти­ческий, X - стиль художественной ли­тературы, Р - религиозный.

The scheme reflects the fact that the styles overlap, as there are no clear-cut borderlines between them. V.L.Nayer also states the tendency to roughening of the whole FSs system of modern English. As a result of this tendency, groups of styles integrate, thus forming three basic communicative spheres: the sphere of professional and business communication, the sphere of mass communication, the sphere of artistic communication. These spheres he calls “Mega styles”, while FSs correspond to “macro styles” and “micro styles” are represented by further subdivision of FS into substyles and genres. Quite schematically we can show it as follows:

mega styles	macro styles	micro styles
		substyles	genres
		juridical
Professional and	official	diplomatic
business communication		formal
		scientific proper
	scientific	educational
		scientific popular
	professionally-technical	descriptions
		instructions
	newspaper
Mass communication	publicist	essays
		speeches
	religious style	sermon
		hagiography
Artistic communication		poetry
	belles-lettres style	prose
		drama

Belles-letters styleis bookish literary language. It has its own substyles: prose, drama, and poetry. The language of literature being a complex phenomenon has many literary schools of different periods, many individual styles. That is why it is difficult to make out the distinguishing features of that style. This style is quite different from other styles. In the language of literature there are many examples of other styles. Literature is a mixture of other styles, which is explained by its function - aesthetics. Creating truthful pictures of life, portraying characters, a writer makes use of all available means of national language. He uses words from all the layers of the vocabulary and elements of various styles, but in a peculiar way, aiming at a certain stylistic effect. The speech of the writer reflects the literary norm of his period. The language of the characters is not the exact reproduction of natural speech. Colloquial speech is stylized, shaped, according to the laws of the literary work. The writer always makes use of all the typical features of colloquial spoken varieties. He must keep the range of possible deviations of his literary work, genre, and purpose. He always stylizes. The degree of stylizing depends on the writer himself; on his ideas. When elements of a functional style are used in emotive prose, they are stylized, as they serve the needs of expressiveness. Lexical meanings are used in a peculiar way. A wide use of all sorts of stylistic devices makes the information imaginary. Complexity of the phenomenon of imaginative literature leads to the variety of approaches to the style. The style of a literary work is considered to be unique whole of both verbal and super-verbal components. It is essential that the analysis of style should not be separated from the content. The literary text is a complete, undivided structure, all elements of the text are equally conductive to the understanding of the whole. Linguo-stylistics meets literary stylistics in this style, and all varieties of the national language and functional styles interact with one another.

12. The notion of a functional style. Classification of functional styles. Publicist style.

Publicistic styleis emotional, its aim is to influence the reader, to make reader accept writers point of view. It is used in articles, essays etc. In publicistic style the aim is achieved by logical argumentation of the idea, by the emotional appeal to the reader. The audience must feel the personal concern.

12. The notion of a functional style. Classification of functional styles. Newspaper style.

Newspaper style. Its communicative aim is to inform the reader, to make information objective. It is the style which is used in the news items, press reports, information, advertisement, announcements. It bears no stamp of individuality of the reporter. This is not strictly observed. It has its lexical and grammatical peculiarities: Press terminology - political and economical terms; abbreviations, fixed cliches, the arrangement of the sentences; special names, dates. Syntax - because of restrictions of time, space, reporters have to cram all the news in to the few lines, that is why they make long and complicated sentences, grammar rules are disregarded. There is a certain way of reporting, a word order is distorted. Headlines - they are short with a peculiar arrangements of words, prepositions and articles are avoided. There widely used elliptical sentences, the verb “to be” is omitted, simple tenses are used. A headline must be catching and informative.

12. The notion of a functional style. Classification of functional styles. Scientific prose style.

Scientific prose style is used to explain and to prove. It mustn’t be emotional. You may refer the reader to some other scientific works. The language is logical and very precise. Each branch has its specific terminology. The peculiarity of terms: they are used only in one meaning and realize only one logical meaning. The style is to be convincing, it must be impersonal. There is a wide use of impersonal constructions. The style abounds verbal constructions, attributive noun groups. Word order is usually direct, the text is divided into paragraphs. One paragraphs conveys one thought, key sentences are the last and the first ones.

12. The notion of a functional style. Classification of functional styles. The style of official documents.

The style of official documents is the most formalized style. The aim is establishing relations between to sides, parties. These style uses the language of documents which is very formal. The language of the style is business-like, all emotions are excluded. The ready-made forms are used. Each spheres of relations has its own sets of terms, standard formulas of expression, compositional design, symbols.

12. Style and genre. Stylistics and translation. Text as an object of translation.

According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant and can deviate from the invariant, even breaking away with it.