Slezkine

Contemporary Little Russia gave birth to the Goths, who went on to found prosperous

states in Italy, France, and Spain. And from the Volga, Ural, and Kuma rivers came the

Hungarians, Huns, and various other peoples who ... shook Europe and gave it its

present shape. In this way many peoples must look to our Fatherland in order to find their

forebears. 101

Likewise, the Slavs could be praised irrespective of where they lived (in fact, "the

variety of different lands of the Slavic tribe is the most incontrovertible proof of

its greatness and antiquity"9);'02 the Slavic language could be praised irrespective

of where it was spoken;'03 the Russian state could be praised irrespective of the

people it ruled (for old dynastic reasons but increasingly for the new reason of

"'tolerance");'04 and even the name of Rossiuane could be derived from razseiany,

that is, "'scattered."'905 In this scheme, Russian history tended to begin according

to the territorial principle, then shift to the national-linguistic, and finally switch

to the state-for good.'06

Yet it was clear that the Russian Empire was, however uncomfortably, also a

Russian nation state, which presupposed a triumphant and "ancient" unity of

territory, people, language, state, and name. Standard geography textbooks that

characterized the states/peoples of the world (and never defined empires as mul-

tinational states) described "Russians" under "Russia" while placing the Tatars in

the "Asia" section.'07 The greatest challenge, however, was to overcome ethnog-

raphy by history; to abolish the new ethnographic findings in "our" case; to con-

flate-once and for all-the various independent components of Russian

nationality. The first to set himself this task was M. V. Lomonosov, who endeav-

ored to prove that the ancient Russians had been called Roksolans (Russians) and

had spoken Slavic (name equals language); that the ancient Slavs had been Sar-

matians and hence always inhabited the Russian territory (name equals language

equals territory); that the Lithuanians were also Slavs, as had been the Prussians;

and that the Varangians had been Prussians and hence Russians (name equals

language equals territory equals state).'08

Few of these claims could be maintained in the long run: Lomonosov himself

would have to trace some Russians back to the Finns (and so-noblesse oblige-

trace the Finns themselves to the "great and ancient" Scythians),'09 while his suc-

cessors would soon surrender the Roksolans, the Lithuanians, and-for a while-

the Varangians. Yet the problem had been formulated, at least in terms of the

past. Solving it, and posing it in terms of the present, was a challenge that the

nineteenth-century state (known as rossiiskoe and identified with "Orthodoxy,

autocracy, and nationality" in that order) would have to share with a self-styled

"intelligentsia" (known as russkaia and identified with nationality as distinct from

the state)." 0 The Enlightenment inventory of internal foreigners conducted by

mostly foreign officials for an increasingly foreign (bureaucratic) state had con-

tributed to the disaggregation of Russianness and thus to the predicament of

Naturalists Versus Nations 189

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those "foreigners at home, foreigners abroad" who would reshape the world in

order to put Russianness back together."' The difficulty was quite common, of

course: Britain and England were not convinced they were not synonyms; the

Franks and the Gauls were still arguing over paternity; and not all Castilian

speakers knew they were speaking Spanish. Still, Russia's challenge seemed

unusually formidable. Much of its "sacred" heartland seemed to consist of

borderlands.

Notes

I am grateful to Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, to the participants in the Social Science

Research Council-sponsored workshop, "Visions, Institutions, and Experiences of

Imperial Russia," and to the fellows of the Doreen B. Townsend Center for the

Humanities (University of California, Berkeley), for stimulating discussions.

1. John F. Baddeley, Russia, Mongolia, China, 2 vols. (New York, n.d.), 2:10.

2. Ibid., 8.

3. Vladimir Ger'e, Leibnits i ego viek, vol. 2, Otnosheniia Leibnitsa k Rossii i Petru Velikomu

po neizdannym bumagam Leibnitsa v gannoverskoi biblioteke (St. Petersburg, 1871), 5, 12.

Cf. Daniel Droixhe, "Le Voyage de 'Schreiten': Leibniz et les debuts du comparatisme

finno-ougrienne," in Tullio de Mauro and Lia Formigari, eds., Leibniz, Humboldt, and

the Origins of Comparativism (Amsterdam, 1990), 19.

4. For more on this, see Yuri Slezkine, "The Sovereign's Foreigners: Classifying the

Native Siberians in 17th-Century Russia," forthcoming in Russian HistorylHistoire

russe. See also Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World

(Chicago, 1991), 82-83.

5. See Margaret T. Hodgen, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Sevententh Centuries

(Philadelphia, 1971), 129 and passim.

6. Rainer S. Elkar, "Reisen bildet," in B. I. Krasnobaev, Gert Robel, and Herbert Zeman,

eds., Reisen und Reisebeschreibungen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert als Quellen der Kultur-

beziehungsforschung (Berlin, 1980), 54; Hans Erich Bodeker, "Reisebeschreibungen

im historischen Diskurs der Aufklarung," in Bodeker et al., eds., Aufkldrung und Ge-

schichte: Studien zur deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft im 18. Jahrhundert (Gottingen,

1986), 279-81. Also P. Miliukov, Glavnyia techeniia russkoi istoricheskoi mysli (St. Peters-

burg, 1913), 72.

7. Russia, Arkheograficheskaia kommissiia, Pamiatniki sibirskoi istorii XVIII vieka, 2 vols.

(St. Petersburg, 1885), 2:292-3, 460; V. N. Tatishchev, Izbrannye trudy po geografii

Rossii (Moscow, 1950), 13; V. G. Mirzoev, Istoriografiia Sibiri: Domarksistskii period

(Moscow, 1970), 78; G. F. Miller [Gerhard F. Muller], Istoriia Sibiri, 2 vols. (Moscow,

1937), 1:30.

8. The first Russian monthly, published by the academy and edited by Muller, appealed

to both (Ezhemesiachnye sochineniia, k pol'ze i uveseleniiu sluzhashchie).

9. Ger'e, Leibnits, 2:76. See also Ivan Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski puteshestviia doktora i

akademii nauk ad"iunkta Ivana Lepekhina po raznym provintsiiam Rossiiskago gosudarstva,

4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1771-1805), 1:90.

190 REPRESENTATIONS

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10. Konrad Bittner, "Slavica bei G. W. von Leibniz," Germanoslavica, no. 3 (1931-32):

227-28; no. 4 (1931-32): 528-29, 537-39; Ger'e, Leibnits, 2:16-18.

11. Bittner, "Slavica," no. 4:191.

12. See Bernard McGrane, Beyond Anthropology: Society and the Other (New York, 1989),

48.

13. See Mark Bassin, "Russia Between Europe and Asia: The Ideological Construction

of Geographical Space," Slavic Review, no. 1 (1991): 1-7.

14. For some major compilations, see Atlas Rossiiskoi, sostoiashchei iz deviatnadtsati spetsi-

al'nykh kart predstavliaiushchikh Vserossiskuiu Imperiiu s pogranichnymi zemliami, sochi-

nennoi po pravilam geograficheskim i noveishim observatsiiam (St. Petersburg, 1745);

Khariton Chebotarev, Geograficheskoe metodicheskoe opisanie Rossiiskoi Imperii (Moscow,

1776); Ivan Kirilov, Tsvietushchee sostoianie Vserossiiskago gosudarstva (Moscow, 1831;

compiled in 1727); Martin Ia. Klevetskii, Rukovodstvo k geografii s upotrebleniem zemnago

shara i landkart (St. Petersburg, 1773); "Kratkoe opisanie Tobol'skago Namiestni-

chestva," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 6 (1790):

148-218; Sergei Pleshcheev, Obozrienie Rossiiskiia imperii v nynieshnem eia novoustroen-

nom sostoianii (3rd ed., St. Petersburg, 1790); Fedor Polunin, Geograficheskii leksikon

Rossiiskago gosudarstva (Moscow, 1773); V. N. Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Len-

ingrad, 1979), 328-60; Tatishchev, Izbrannye trudy po geografii, 36-97; Kh. N. Vins-

geim, Kratkaia politicheskaia geografiia (St. Petersburg, 1745).

15. On this activity, see L. A. Goldenberg and A. V. Postnikov, "Development of Mapping

Methods in Russia in the Eighteenth Century," Imago mundi, no. 37 (1985): 63-64;

D. M. Lebedev, Ocherki po istorii geografii v Rossii XVIII v. (Moscow, 1957); M. G. Nov-

lianskaia, I. K. Kirilov i ego Atlas Vserossiiskoi imperii (Moscow, 1958), 5-6, 9, 11; A. N.

Pypin, Istoriia russkoi etnografii, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1890), 1:95-99.

16. Charles Frankel, The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment

(New York, 1948), pp. 44-45.

17. Hodgen, Early Anthropology, pp. 418-26; McGrane, Beyond Anthropology, 78-8 1. The

quotes are from Carl Linnaeus' System of Nature and William Petty's The Scale of

Creatures.

18. Russkie ekspeditsii po izucheniiu severnoi chasti Tikhogo okeana v pervoi polovine XVIII v.

Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow, 1984), 155; G. F. Muller, "Instruktion G. F. Muller's fur

den Akademiker-Adjuncten J. E. Fischer. Unterricht, was bey Beschreibung der

Volker, absonderlich der Sibirischen in acht zu nehmen," Sbornik Muzeiia po antropolo-

gii ietnografii, 1 (1900): 37-99.

19. Frankel, Faith of Reason, 44.

20. See Muiller's introduction to Fedor Polunin's Geograficheskii leksikon Rossiiskago gosu-

darstva (Moscow, 1773). See also Tatishchev, Izbrannye trudy po geografii, 174-83; and

Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 153-327.

21. G. F. Miller [Muller], Opisanie Sibirskago tsarstva (St. Petersburg, 1750), 27, 29.

22. Tatishchev, Izbrannye trudy po geografii, 88-89. See also Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski,

4:198-99.

23. See, for example, A. I. Andreev, ed., "Opisaniia o zhizni i uprazhnenii obitaiushchikh

v Turukhanskoi i Berezovskoi okrugakh raznogo roda iasachnykh inovertsakh," So-

vetskaia etnografiia, no. 1 (1947): 84-103; Ludwig Adolph Baumann, Kratkoe nacherta-

nie geografii (Moscow, 1775); Ivan Gustav Gerber, "Izviestie o nakhodiaschikhsia s

Zapadnoi storony Kaspiiskogo moria mezhdu Astrakhan'iu i riekoiu Kurom naro-

dakh," Sochineniia i perevody, k pol'zie i uveseleniiu sluzhashchie (July 1760): 1-48;

(August 1760): 99-140; (September 1760): 195-232; (October 1760): 292-303; Kiri-

Naturalists Versus Nations 191

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lov, Tsvetushchee sostoianie; S. P. Krasheninnikov, Opisanie zemlie kamchatki. S prilozh-

emiem raportov, donesenii i drugikh neopublikovannykh materialov. (Moscow, 1949); Egor

Nesterev, "Primiechaniie o prikosnovennykh okolo Kitaiskoi granitsy zhiteliakh,"

Novyia ezhemiesiachnyia sochineniia 79 (January 1793): 59-82; Russkie ekspeditsii po

izucheniiu severnoi chasti Tikhogo okeana vo vtoroi polovine XVIII v. Sbornik dokumentov

(Moscow, 1989), 85; Petr I. Rychkov, Topografiia Orenburgskaia (St. Petersburg, 1762);

Vinsgeim, Kratkaia politicheskaia geografiia.

24. "'Skaska' piatidesiatnika Vladimira Atlasova, 3 iiunia 1700," in Ia. P. Al'kor and A. K.

Drezen, eds., Kolonial'naia politika tsarizma na Kamchatke i Chukotke v XVIII veke: Sbornik

arkhivnykh materialov (Leningrad, 1935), 31.

25. Sibirskiia lietopisi (St. Petersburg, 1907), 112. Cf. N. S. Orlova, ed., Otkrytiia russkikh

zemleprokhodtsev i poliarnykh morekhodov XVII veka na severo-vostoke Azii. Sbornik doku-

mentov (Moscow, 1951), 83, 98. For more on this, see Slezkine, "Sovereign's For-

eigners."

26. See, for example, Miller, Istoriia Sibiri, 2:276; Sibirskiia lietopisi, 112. Cf. Hayden

White, "The Forms of Wildness: Archaeology of an Idea," in Edward Dudley and

Maximilian E. Novak, eds., The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thoughtfrom the

Renaissance to Romanticism (Pittsburgh, 1972), 19-22.

27. Orlova, Otkrytiia, 140; Russkaia tikhookeanskaia epopeia (Khabarovsk, 1979), 69.

28. Andreev, ed., "Opisaniia o zhizni," 90. See also Johann Gottlieb Georgi, Opisanie

vsiekh obitaiushchikh v Rossiiskom gosudarstvie narodov, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1799),

1:18 and passim; Krasheninnikov, Opisanie, 406-13; Muller, "Instruktion," 72ff.;

Tatishchev, Izbrannye trudy po geografii, 38.

29. See, in particular, Simon-Peter Pallas, Travels into the Southern Provinces of the Russian

Empire in the Years 1793 and 1794, 2 vols. (London, 1802), vol. 1, passim, and vol. 2,

p. 354. Also Krisanf (Mitropolit Novopatrasskii), "O stranakh Srednei Azii" and

"Izvestie o Kitaiskom gosudarstve," Chteniia v Imperatorskom Obshchestve istorii i drev-

nostei Rossiiskikh pri Moskovskom universitete, book 1 (January-March 1861); and G. A.

Sarychev, Puteshestvie po severo-vostochnoi chasti Sibiri, Ledovitomu moriu i Vostochnomu

okeanu (Moscow, 1952).

30. "O Tungusakh voobshche," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye

gody, part 6 (1790): 286, 289.

31. Grigorii Novitskii, Kratkoe opisanie o narodie Ostiatskom, sochinennoe v 1715 godu (St.

Petersburg, 1884), 31-32, 47-49. See also Georg Wilhelm Steller, Beschreibung von

dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort, 1774), 355-58.

32.Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 87.

33.Johann Peter Fal'k, Zapiski puteshestviia akademika Fal'ka: Polnoe sobranie uchenykh

puteshestvii po Rossii, 7 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1824), 6:222, 233-34; [Johann Eberhard

Fischer], "O proizkhozhdenii moldavtsov, o ikh iazykie, znatneishikh prikliuche-

niiakh, vierie, nravakh i povedeniiakh," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov

na raznye gody, part 3 (1789): 81; Georgi, Opisanie 1:21, 23, 42; Lepekhin, Dnevnyia

zapiski, 1:138; Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps, Travels in Kamtschatka During the Years

1787 and 1788, 2 vols. (London, 1790), 2:27, 84; Pallas, Travels, 1:431, 446.

34. Klevetskii, Rukovodstvo k geografii, 52-53, 60, 74, 83, 91, and passim; Georgi, Opisanie,

1: 14-19; 4:69-70, 83, and passim.

35. [Fischer], "Dogadki o proizkhozhdenii Amerikantsov," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz

miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 3 (1789): 122-73.

36. See Slezkine, "Sovereign's Foreigners."

37. Samuel G. Gmelin, Puteshestvie po Rossii (St. Petersburg, 1771), 209.

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38. Hodgen, Early Anthropology, 448; Miliukov, Glavnyia techeniia, 74.

39. Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski, 1: 179.

40. Ibid., 213.

41. "Perechen' iz dnevnoi zapiski kazach'eva sotnika Ivana Kobeleva, posylanago 1779

goda v martie miesiatsie iz Gizhiginskoi kreposti v Chukotskuiu zemliu," Sobranie

sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 5 (1790): 368.

42. M. D. Chulkov, Abevega russkikh suieverii (Moscow, 1786); Klevetskii, Rukovodstvo, 47,

53, 83, 103, 114. See also Baumann, Kratkoe nachertanie, 86.

43. Georgi, Opisanie, 4:83.

44. Ibid., 84.

45. Baumann, Kratkoe nachertanie, 17, 24, 37, 39, 86, 114.

46. Ger'e, Leibnits, 2:25-26. See also Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski, 3:24 1.

47. Tatishchev, Izbrannyeproizvedeniia, 103-4; Georgi, Opisanie, 1 :viii-ix; Ivan Boltin, Pri-

mechaniia na Istoriiu drevniia i nyneshniia Rossii g. Leklerka (St. Petersburg, 1788), 146.

48. Georgi, Opisanie, 1:ix.

49. Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 70-79.

50. N. Rychkov, Dnevnyia Zapiski puteshestviia Kapitana Nikolaia Rychkova v Kirgis-Kaisatskoi

stepie, 1771 godu (St. Petersburg, 1772), 79-81; Sarychev, Puteshestvie, 41.

51. V. F. Zuev, Materialy po etnografii Sibiri XVIII veka (1771-72), Akademiia nauk, SSSR,

Trudy Instituta etnografii im. N. N. Miklukho-Maklaia, new ser., vol. 5 (Moscow,

1947), 36.

52. Krasheninnikov, Opisanie, 367; Novitskii, Kratkoe opisanie, 43; Lepekhin, Dnevnyia za-

piski, 3:275; Georgi, Opisanie, 1:23.

53. Arkhimandrit Sofronii, "Izviestie o Kitaiskom, nyne Mandzhuro-Kitaiskom gosu-

darstvie," Chteniia v Imperatorskom obshchestvie istorii i drevnostei rossiiskikh, no. 1 (Jan-

uary-March 1861): sec. 5, p. 71; Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski, 4:118; Nesterev,

"Primiechaniia," 56-57.

54. See, respectively, Khrisanf, "O stranakh," 48-49; Lepekhin, Dnevynia zapiski, 3:20;

Zuev, Materialy, 29; and Lesseps, Travels, 1:91 and 2:4 1.

55. Krasheninnikov, Opisanie, 367.

56. Lesseps, Travels, 1:89; [V. F. Zuev], "Vypiska iz puteshestvennykh zapisok Vasil'ia

Zueva, kasaiushchikhsia do poluostrova Kryma, 1782 goda," Sobranie sochinenii vybra-

nykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 5 (1790): 286; [Zuev], "Vypiska iz puteshe-

stvennykh zapisok Vasil'ia Zueva ob Aziatskih oblastiakh k Chernomu moriu

prilezhashchikh," ibid., part 6 (1790): 232.

57. [Zuev], "Vypiska iz puteshestvennykh zapisok Vasil'ia Zueva, kasaiushchikhsia do

poluostrova Kryma, 1782 goda," 288; "O Tungusakh voobshche," 297.

58. Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 60.

59. The quote is from Lesseps, Travels, 1:89.

60. Pallas, Travels, 2:356. Cf. Lesseps, Travels, 1:96: "The greatest happiness, in [the Kam-

chadal] estimation, next to that of getting drunk, is to have nothing to do, and live

for ever in tranquil indolence."

61. G. Berens, "O sostoianii novykh poselenii v Iuzhnoi Sibiri, 1776 g.," Sibirskii viestnik,

part 10, book 5 (1820): 297.

62. Fal'k, Zapiski, 6:54. See also N. Rychkov, Dnevnyia Zapiski, 31.

63. Khrisanf, "O stranakh," 86; Georgi, Opisanie, 38; Lesseps, Travels, 1:29; Zuev, Mate-

rialy, 31.

64. Zuev, Materialy, 59.

65. Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski, 1: 16, 64, 69, 73, 84, 109.

Naturalists Versus Nations 193

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66. Khrisanf, "O stranakh," 35-39; Sofronii, "Izvestie," 25-35; [Zuev], "Vypiska iz pute-

shestvennykh zapisok Vasil'ia Zueva ob Aziatskih oblastiakh," 227; Gmelin, Pute-

shestvie, part 3, pp. 172-73. For "free peoples" see, for example, "Kratkoe

geograficheskoe opisanie kniazhestva Moldavskago i lezhashchikh mezhdu Chernym

i Kaspiiskim moriami zemel' i narodov s landkartoiu sikh zemel'," Sobranie sochinenii

vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 3 (1789): 108-17.

67. [Fischer], "O proizkhozhdenii moldavtsov," 82; "Opisanie Kuril'skikh ostrovov,"

Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 6 (1 790): 97; "Kratkoe

izviestie o novoizobrietennom sievernom arkhipelagie," in ibid., part 3 (1789): 355;

"Opisanie trekh iazycheskikh narodov v Kazanskoi gubernii, a imenno cheremisov,

chuvashei i votiakov," in Ezhemiesiachnyia sochineniia k pol'ze i uveseleniiu sluzhashchiia

(July 1756): 42-43, 54-55; (August 1756): 119-245; "Perechen' puteshestviia shtur-

mana Zaikova k ostrovam mezhdu Azieiu i Amerikoiu nakhodiashchimsia na botie

Sv. Vladimira," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 5

(1790): 159; Russkie ekspeditsii po izucheniiu severnoi chasti Tikhogo okeana vo vtoroi

polovine XVIII v., 115.

68. "Opisanie trekh" (July 1756), 43; "O Tungusakh voobshche," 297.

69. "Ob astronomii Grenlandskikh zhitelei," in Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslo-

vov na raznye gody, part 1 (1785): 153.

70. Lesseps, Travels, 1:95-97; Pallas, Travels, 1:391.

71. A. N. Radishchev, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1941), 2:64.

72. Chebotarev, Geograficheskoe metodicheskoe opisanie, 47; "O proizkhozhdenii moldav-

tsov," 83; Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski, 4:226.

73. Quoted in L. P. Belkovets, Iogann Georg Gmelin, 1709-1755 (Moscow, 1990), 89.

74. Chebotarev, Geograficheskoe metodicheskoe opisanie, 43-44. See also "Izviestiia o Bukha-

rii," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 4 (1790): 139-

40. Cf. Hodgen, Early Anthropology, 461-63.

75. Hodgen, Early Anthropology, 487.

76. Chebotarev, Geograficheskoe metodicheskoe opisanie, 48.

77. "O Tungusakh voobshche," 297.

78. Radishchev, Polnoe sobranie, 2:66.

79. Andreev, "Opisaniia," 94; Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 88; Lepekhin, Dnevnyia

zapiski, 1:168.

80. Radishchev, Polnoe sobranie, 2:66.

81. See, for example, Johann Eberhard Fischer, Sibirskaia istoriia s samago otkrytiia Sibiri

do zavoevaniia sei zemli Rossiiskim oruzhiem (St. Petersburg, 1774), 67; Lepekhin, Dnev-

nyia zapiski, 3:28; 4:212; Muller, "Instruktion," 39-41; Muller, Opisanie, 21; Pallas,

Travels, 1:390; 2:345; Steller, Beschreibung, 297-303.

82. Georgi, Opisanie, 1:35.

83. Frankel, Faith of Reason, 52; Miliukov, Glavnyia techeniia, 89.

84. Hans Aarslef, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual

History (Minneapolis, 1982), 281-82; Maurice Olender, The Languages of Paradise:

Race, Religion, and Philology in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 1-5;

R. H. Robins, "The History of Language Classification," in Thomas A. Sebeok, ed.,

Current Trends in Linguistics, vol. 2 (The Hague, 1973), 7-11.

85. Henry M. Hoenigswald, "Descent, Perfection, and the Comparative Method Since

Leibniz," in Mauro and Formigari, Leibniz, 119-31.

86. Hans Aarslef, "The Eighteenth Century, Including Leibniz," in Current Trends in Lin-

guistics, vol. 13 (The Hague, 1975), 391-94; Robert H. Robins, "Leibniz and Wilhelm

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von Humboldt and the History of Comparative Linguistics," in Mauro and Formi-

gari, Leibniz, 85-93.

87. Bittner, "Slavica," no. 4, pp. 199, 201; Ger'e, Leibnits, 2:41-42.

88. See, for example, Philip Johan Tabbert von Stralenberg, Russia, Siberia, and Great

Tartary (1738; reprint ed., New York, 1970); Tatishchev, Izbrannye trudy, 70-72, 173;

V. N. Tatishchev, Istoriia rossiiskaia, 7 vols. (Moscow, 1962), vol. 1; Fischer, Sibirskaia

istoriia, 70-105 (much of the linguistic material was, apparently, provided by Muller);

P. P. Pekarskii, Istoriia imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk v Peterburgie (St. Petersburg, 1870),

630-32; Peter Simon Pallas, Sravnitel'nye slovari vsiekh iazykov i nariechii, sobranye des-

nitseiu vsevysochaishei osoby (St. Petersburg, 1789). For the definitive ethnic classifica-

tions, see Georgi, Opisanie; and Pleshcheev, Obozrienie, 26-38.

89. N. Ia. Ozeretskovskii, Puteshestvie po ozeram Ladozhskomu i Onezhskomu (Petrozavodsk,

1989), 124. Cf. Muller, Opisanie, 21.

90. Lepekhin, Dnevnyia zapiski, 4:404.

91. Pleshcheev, Obozrienie, 78.

92.Aarslef, From Locke to Saussure, 158-59; Frankel, Faith of Reason, 44-49.

93.W. Keith Percival, "Linguistic and Biological Classification in the Eighteenth Cen-

tury," in Donald C. Mell, Jr., Theodore E. D. Braun, and Lucia M. Palmer, eds., Man,

God, and Nature in the Enlightenment (East Lansing, Mich., 1988), 205-14.

94. Bodeker, "Reisebeschreibungen," 286; Hodgen, Early Anthropology, 433-71; Mc-

Grane, Beyond Anthropology, 83-85.

95. Pallas, Travels, 1:391; Georgi, Opisanie, 1:xiii-x.

96. Georgi, Opisanie, 1 :xiii-x.

97. Miliukov, Osnovnyia techeniia, 86.

98. The first quote is by Schlozer, in Georg G. Iggers, "The European Context of Eigh-

teenth-Century German Historiography," in Bodeker, Aufkldrung und Geschichte, 239;

the second, by Mtller, is in M. V. Lomonosov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 11 vols.

(Moscow, 1952), 6:57.

99. Lomonosov, Polnoe sobranie, 6:67-68.

100. Ibid., 77-78.

101. M. D. Chulkov, Istoricheskoe opisanie Rossiiskoi kommertsii pri vsiekh portakh i granitsakh, 7

vols. (St. Petersburg, 1781), 1:4.

102. M. V. Lomonosov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1986), 2:52.

103. Novieishee poviestvovatel'noe zemleopisanie vsiekh chetyrekh chastei svieta, 5 vols. (St. Peters-

burg, 1795), 2:129.

104. Catherine, Empress of Russia, Sochineniia imperatritsy Ekateriny II, (St. Petersburg,

1901), 7:55; Georgi, Opisanie, 4:66; Tatishchev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 87.

105. Novieishee, 1: 17.

106. See, for example, "Sokrashchenie Rossiiskoi istorii," Sobranie sochinenii vybranykh iz

miesiatsoslovov na raznye gody, part 3 (1789): 1-10.

107. Klevetskii, Rukovodstvo, 108.

108. Lomonosov, Polnoe sobranie, 6:25-80.

109. Lomonosov, Izbrannye, 2:66-72.

110. See, in particular, Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia,

1825-1855 (Berkeley, 1959); and Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity

(Cambridge, Mass., 1992), 190-274.

111. "Foreigners at home, foreigners abroad, idle spectators, spoilt for Russia by Western

prejudices and for the West by Russian habit." Alexander Herzen, My Past and

Thoughts (Berkeley, 1982), 66.

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